{{Taistelu
 | nimi = Afganistanin sota
 | osa_sotaa = terrorismin vastaista sotaa
 | kuva = US_10th_Mountain_Division_soldiers_in_Afghanistan.jpg
 | kuvateksti = Sotilaat palaamassa kopterilla tukikohtaan mahdollisten Taleban-taistelijoiden ja laittomien aseiden tutkinnan jälkeen.
 | päivämäärä = 7. lokakuuta 2001 &ndash; 
 | paikka = Afganistan
 | casus = Syyskuun 11. päivän iskut
 | aluemuutokset = 
 | vaikutukset = 
 | lopputulos = Afganistan miehitetty, Taliban-hallinto kaadettu, Taistelut jatkuvat
 | taistelija1 = 20px 20px‎ Al Qaida
 | taistelija2 =22px 22px Pohjoisliittolaiset</br><br> 22px ISAF
 | komentaja1 = Mullah Omar<br>20pxAyman al-Zawahiri<br>Mullah Dadullah<br>Gulbuddin Hekmatyar
 | komentaja2 = Tommy Franks<br>David Fraser<br>Mohammed Fahim
 | vahvuus1 = 
 | vahvuus2 = 
 | tappiot1 = n. 15 000
 | tappiot2 = 628 liittouman sotilasta, joista 412 amerikkalaisia
 | huomautus = 
 | muut_taistelut = 
}}

Uusin '''sota Afganistanissa''' alkoi lokakuussa Yhdysvaltain, Yhdistyneen kuningaskunnan, syyskuun 11. päivän iskuista.

Sodalla ei ole vakiintunutta nimea. Yhdysvallat näkee sodan osana terrorismin vastaisesta sotaa – kenraalin Tommy Franksin johtama kampanja oli nimeltään ''Operation Enduring Freedom''.<ref></ref> Brittijoukkojen operaatio oli nimeltään ''Operation Veritas''<ref></ref> . 

Taistelut Afganistanissa jatkuvat edelleen. Vuoden 2002 tammikuussa maahan saapui YK:n turvallisuusneuvoston päätöksellä  ISAF-joukot (International Security Assistance Force ), joiden  tavoitteena on Afganistanin hallintoviranomaisten toiminnan tukeminen, viranomaisten tukeminen turvallisuuden ylläpitämiseksi, jotta jälleenrakentamisen olisi mahdollista.

Pohjoinen liitto oli ryhmittymä, johon kuului lähinnä muita kansallisuuksia kuin pataaneita:  tadzikkeja, uzbekkeja ja hazaroita. Heitä yhdisti Talibanien vastustaminen.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1652187.stm BBC]</ref> 

== Sodan tausta ==
Sodan taustalla olivat terroristiksi epäillyn Osama bin Ladenin luovuttamista jo joulukuussa 2000. Syyskuun 11. iskujen tekijöiden selvittyä Yhdysvaltain presidentti George W. Bush vaati talibaneja luovuttamaan Osama bin Ladenin ja Al-Qaidan johtajat sekä sulkemaan terroristien koulutusleirit. Talibanit eivät suostuneet vaatimuksiin, vaan halusivat ensin lisää todisteita bin Ladenin syyllisyydestä ja ehdottivat hänen asiansa käsittelyä jossakin islamilaisessa tuomioistuimessa. Hyökkäyksen lähestyessä talebanit tarjosivat bin Ladenin luovuttamista johonkin puolueettomaan valtioon asian tutkimiseksi. Bush ilmoitti, ettei pitänyt talebanien ehdotuksia vilpittöminä, ja 7. lokakuuta 2001 klo 16.30 UTC yhdysvaltalais- ja brittijoukot aloittivat taliban- ja Al-Qaida -kohteiden pommitukset Kabulissa, Kandaharissa sekä Jalalabadissa.<ref></ref>

== Sodan kulku ==
Ensimmäisen kahden viikon strategiset pommitukset johtoa ja viestiyhteyksiä vastaan eivät tuottaneet juurikaan tulosta, mutta tämän jälkeen painopisteen siirto rynnäköintiin Talibanin taistelujoukkoja vastaan sekä Yhdysvaltain erikoisjoukkojen hyökkäys Kandahariin marraskuun alussa mahdollistivat Pohjoisen liiton joukkojen etenemisen. Mazar-i-Sharif vallattiin 9. marraskuuta ja sitä puolustaneet taliban-taistelijat teloitettiin. Mazar-i-Sharifin menetyksen jälkeen monet pohjoiset maakunnat antautuivat ilman vastarintaa talibanien tukijoiden vaihtaessa puolta. Yöllä 12. marraskuuta talibanit vetäytyivät Kabulista kohti etelää. Kaupunkia jäi puolustamaan vain kourallinen ulkomaalaisia al-Qaidan taistelijoita, jotka 13. päivänä saapuneet Pohjoisen liiton joukot voittivat nopeasti. Seuraavan 24 tunnin aikana kaikki Iranin rajan vastaiset maakunnat antautuivat, mukaan lukien tärkeä Heratin kaupunki.

left|250px|thumb|Afganistanin kartta

Pohjoisessa Afganistanissa 10 000 Taliban-taistelijaa vetäytyi Kondozin kaupunkiin, joka saarrettiin 16. marraskuuta mennessä. Tällöin talibanit olivat perääntyneet etelässä jo Kandahariin asti. 13. päivästä lähtien noin 2000 Al-Qaida-taistelijaa, joukossa melko varmasti myös Osama bin Laden, oli linnoittautunut Tora-Boran vuoristoon 50 kilometriä lounaaseen Jalalabadista. Yhdysvaltain ilmavoimat aloittivat massiiviset pommitukset linnoitusten tuhoamiseksi. Konduz antautui 25. marraskuuta, ja noin 2000 taistelijaa teloitettiin välittömästi tai tukehtui kuoliaaksi kuljetuksen aikana. Qala-e-Jangin vankilassa alkoi samana päivänä kapina noin 600 vangin noustua vangitsijoitaan vastaan. Kapinan tukahduttaminen kesti kolme päivää ja merkitsi taisteluiden loppua pohjoisessa Afganistanissa.

Etelässä Kandahar oli vielä talibanien hallinnassa. Ensimmäinen suurempi Yhdysvaltain joukko, noin 1000 merijalkaväen sotilasta, taisteli täällä ensi kertaa talibaneja vastaan. Raskaan pommituksen alla Taliban-joukot olivat valmiit antautumaan Mullah Omar nähtiin viimeisen kerran moottoripyöräsaattueessa pakenemassa Kandaharista kohti Uruzganin maakunnan vuoristoa. Muut Taliban-johtajat pakenivat Pakistaniin Paktian ja Paktikan maakuntien kautta ja kaupunki jäi Pohjoisen liiton joukkojen käsiin.

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict= War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
|partof=the War on Terrorism, Civil war in Afghanistan
|campaign=
|image= 300px 
|caption=U.S. and UK forces in Helmand province, 2007. 
|date= October 7, 2001–present
|place= Afghanistan
|casus= September 11, 2001 attacks
|territory=
|status= Conflict ongoing
*Destruction of al-Qaeda camps
*Taliban insurgency
*War in North-West Pakistan
|combatant1=  IMU<br>Hezbi Islami<br>Lashkar-e-Toiba<br>Jaish-e-Mohammed<ref>http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0715/p07s05-wosc.html</ref><br>Hizbul Mujahideen
|combatant2= Northern Alliance (UIF) <br> Operation Enduring Freedom Allies<br> Afghanistan
|commander1=  Mohammed Omar <br>  Obaidullah Akhund <br>  Mullah Dadullah <br>  Jalaluddin Haqqani <br>  Osama bin Laden <br>  Ayman al-Zawahiri <br>  Mustafa Abu al-Yazid <br>Tohir Yo‘ldosh<br>Gulbuddin Hekmatyar<br>Sirajuddin Haqqani<br>Baitullah Mehsud
|commander2=  Bismillah Khan <br> David Richards (ISAF)<br> Egon Ramms (NATO)
|strength1=Taliban: 10,000-30,000 <br> Haqqani militia: 1,000 <br> IMU: 1,000-10,000<ref>http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2370289</ref> <br> Mehsud militia: 30,000<ref>http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2007/08/taliban_capture_over.php</ref>
|strength2=Afghan Army: 76,000<ref name="www_pajhwok_com2"></ref><br>U.S. (non-ISAF): 18,000<ref>http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1819992,00.html</ref><br>ISAF/NATO: 52,700 (10 June 2008)<ref>[http://www.nato.int/ISAF/docu/epub/pdf/isaf_placemat.pdf - International Security Assistance Force Factsheet - NATO, 10 June 2008]</ref>
|casualties1= 24,000+ killed since 2001<br>'''Detainees''': 28,000+<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/17/world/asia/17detain.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin U.S. Planning Big New Prison in Afghanistan - New York Times<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
|casualties2=(July 2008)<br>'''Afghan security forces''': 3,100 killed<br>'''Northern Alliance''': <br>200 killed</small><small><ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,39408,00.html FOXNews.com - Scores Killed in Fresh Kunduz Fighting - U.S. &amp; World<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref></small><small><ref>[http://www.post-gazette.com/headlines/20011206war1206p4.asp Friendly fire kills 3 GIs<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref></small><small><ref>[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,184982,00.html A Volatile State Of Siege After a Taliban Ambush - Printout - TIME<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref></small><br>'''Coalition''':<br> 825 killed <small> 
(US:488, UK: 111, Canada:88, Others: 138<ref name="www_defenselink_mil5"></ref>) </small><br>2,495+ wounded<small> 
(US 2,256, Canada 275, UK 140, Germany 70, Other 80+ <ref name="www_defenselink_mil6"></ref>)</small><br>'''Contractors''':<br>83 KIA<br>2,428 WIA<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSN0318650320070703?sp=true In outsourced U.S. wars, contractor deaths top 1,000 | Politics | Reuters<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
|casualties3='''Civilian casualties''': ~20,000<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/may/20/afghanistan.comment</ref>
|
}}

The '''War in Afghanistan''', which began on  October 7, 2001, was launched by the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks. It was the beginning of the War on Terror. The stated purpose of the invasion was to capture Osama bin Laden, destroy al-Qaeda, and remove the Taliban regime which had provided support and safe harbor to al-Qaeda.

Two military operations in Afghanistan seek to stabilize the country. Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) is a combat operation involving coalition partners led by the United States against Al Qaeda remnants, primarily in the eastern and southern parts of the country along the Pakistan border. OEF is not a NATO operation, although many coalition partners are NATO members. Approximately 20,000 troops are in OEF, including approximately 18,000 U.S. forces. The second operation is the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), established by the international community in 2002 to stabilize the country. NATO assumed control of ISAF the following year. By May 2008, ISAF had an estimated 47,000 troops from 40 countries, with NATO members providing the core of the force. The United States has approximately 17,000 troops in ISAF.

The U.S. and the UK led the Afghan Northern Alliance. In 2002, American, British and Canadian infantry were committed, along with special forces from several allied nations. Later, NATO troops were added.

Operation Enduring Freedom - Afghanistan, which is a joint U.S. and Afghan operation, with some involvement from other nations, is separate from the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which is an operation of NATO nations including the U.S. The two operations run in parallel. 

The initial attack removed the Taliban from power, but Taliban forces have since regained some strength.<ref>[http://www.cfr.org/publication/10551/ The Taliban Resurgence in Afghanistan]</ref> The war has been less successful in achieving the goal of restricting al-Qaeda's movement.<ref name="rothstein">[http://books.google.com/books?id=w7fmg1cCjskC&vid=ISBN8170493064&dq=Afghanistan+and+the+troubled+future+of+unconventional+warfare&q=Al+Qaeda&pgis=1#search Afghanistan: and the troubled future of unconventional warfare By Hy S. Rothstein]</ref> Since 2006, insurgent activity, growing illegal drug production, and a fragile government with limited control outside of Kabul.<ref name="unfailed">[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20702&Cr=afghan&Cr1= Afghanistan could return to being a ‘failed State,’ warns Security Council mission chief]</ref>

== Background: 1996-2001==
From May 1996, Osama bin Laden had been living in Afghanistan along with other members of al-Qaeda, operating alliance with the Taliban.<ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/osamabinladen.html Osama bin Laden Wealthy Saudi exile is a terrorist mastermind]</ref> Following the launched submarine-based cruise missiles at these camps with limited effect on their overall operations.

The Resolutions 1267 and 1333 in 1999 and 2000 directed towards the Taliban which applied financial and military hardware two U.S. embassies in Africa in August 1998, and close terrorist training camps.

== September 11, 2001 attacks ==

Six days after the events of September 11, 2001, U.S. President Congress, President Bush issued an ultimatum<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2001/US/09/20/gen.bush.transcript/ CNN.com: Transcript of President Bush's address]</ref> demanding that the Taliban government of Afghanistan:

* deliver al-Qaeda leaders located in Afghanistan to the United States
* release all imprisoned foreign nationals, including American citizens<ref></ref>
* protect foreign diplomats, and aid workers in Afghanistan
* close terrorist training camps in Afghanistan and "hand over every terrorist and every person and their support structure to appropriate authorities"
* give the United States full access to terrorist training camps to verify their closure

"They will hand over the terrorists or they will share in their fate" said Bush. No specifics were attached to the threat, though there followed a statement suggesting military action: "Our war on terror begins with al Qaeda, but it does not end there."

The Taliban government responded through their embassy in Pakistan, asserting that there was no evidence in their possession linking bin Laden to the September 11 attacks. They also stressed that bin Laden was a guest in their country. Pashtun and Taliban codes of behavior require that guests be granted hospitality and asylum.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashtun]</ref><ref>[http://www.commondreams.org/views01/1016-09.htm]</ref>

On September 22, 2001, the United Arab Emirates, and on the following day, Saudi Arabia withdrew their recognition of the Taliban as the legal government of Afghanistan, leaving neighboring Pakistan as the only remaining country with diplomatic ties.

On October 7, 2001, before the onset of military hostilities, the Taliban offered to try bin Laden in Afghanistan in an Islamic court<ref></ref>. This offer was rejected by the U.S., and the bombing of targets within Afghanistan by U.S. and British forces commenced the same day.

October 14, 2001, seven days into the U.S./British bombing campaign, the Taliban offered to surrender  Osama bin Laden to a third country for trial, if the bombing halted and they were shown evidence of his involvement in the September 11 terrorist attacks. This offer was also rejected by U.S. President Bush, who declared "There's no need to discuss innocence or guilt. We know he's guilty."<ref></ref>

The aggression.<ref>[http://www.ejil.org/forum_WTC/ny-stahn-01.html Security Council Resolutions 1368 (2001) and 1373 (2001): What They Say and What They Do Not Say, European Journal of International Law]</ref> 

Also, the U.S. Administration did not officially declare war, and labelled Taliban troops and supporters terrorists rather than soldiers, denying them the protections of the Geneva Convention and due process of law. This position has been successfully challenged in the U.S. Supreme Court<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7470405.stm]</ref> and questioned even by military lawyers responsible for prosecuting affected prisoners.<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/andy-worthington/guantanamos-shambolic-tr_b_88719.html]</ref>     

On December 20, 2001, the UNSC did authorize the creation of an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) with authority to take all measures necessary to fulfill its mandate of assisting the Afghan Interim Authority in maintaining security.<ref>[http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N01/708/55/PDF/N0170855.pdf?OpenElement]</ref> Command of the ISAF passed to NATO on August 11, 2003.<ref>[http://www.issi.org.pk/journal/2007_files/no_1/comment/c1.htm]</ref>

== 2001: Initial attack ==
: See also: ''October 2001, November 2001, December 2001, January 2002, 2001 in Afghanistan

On October 7th, 2001, strikes were reported in the capital, Jalalabad.

At 17:00 UTC, President Bush confirmed the strikes on national television and British Prime Minister Tony Blair also addressed the UK. Bush stated that at the same time as Taliban military and terrorists' training grounds would be targeted, food, medicine, and supplies would be dropped to "the starving and suffering men, women and children of Afghanistan." <ref name="www_australianpolitics_com8"></ref>.

Tomahawk USS ''Carl Vinson'' and USS ''Enterprise'' and 15 US Air Force transport jets were to deliver 37,500 daily rations by airdrop to refugees inside Afghanistan on the first day of the attack.

A pre-recorded Arabic satellite news channel, reported that these tapes were received shortly before the attack. In this recording bin Laden claimed that the United States would fail in Afghanistan and then collapse, just as the Soviet Union did, and called for a jihad, against the U.S.

=== Initial air campaigns ===
Bombers operating at high altitudes well out of range of Stinger anti-aircraft missiles that were the bane of Soviet helicopters during the Soviet occupation in the 1980s. If any of these missiles existed at the time of the air campaign, they were never used and the U.S. didn't lose any aircraft to enemy fire. Beyond that, the Taliban had little to offer in the way of anti-aircraft weaponry, relying mostly on left-over arms and weapons from the Soviet invasion. U.S. aircraft, including Apache helicopter gunships, operated with impunity throughout the campaign.

The strikes initially focused on the area in and around the cities of Kabul, Jalalabad, and Kandahar. Within a few days, most al-Qaeda training sites were severely damaged and the Taliban's air defenses were destroyed. The campaign then focused on command, control, and communication targets which weakened the ability of the Taliban forces to communicate. However, the line facing the Afghan Northern Alliance held, and no tangible battlefield successes had yet occurred on that front. Two weeks into the campaign, the Northern Alliance demanded the air campaign focus more on the front lines. As the war dragged on civilian casualties also began to mount in the affected areas. Meanwhile, thousands of Pashtun militiamen from Pakistan poured into the country, reinforcing the Taliban against the U.S. led forces.

The next stage of the campaign began with carrier based raid deep into the Taliban's heartland of Kandahar, even striking one of Mullah Omar's compounds. However, the campaign's progress seemed to remain very slow.

At the beginning of November, the Taliban front lines were bombed with 15,000-pound daisy cutter bombs, and by AC-130 gunships. The Taliban fighters had no previous experience with American firepower, and often even stood on top of bare ridgelines where Special Forces could easily spot them and call in close air support. By November 2, Taliban frontal positions were decimated, and a Northern Alliance march on Kabul seemed possible for the first time. Foreign fighters from al-Qaeda took over security in the Afghan cities, demonstrating the instability of the Taliban regime. Meanwhile, the Northern Alliance and their CIA/Special Forces advisors planned the next stage of their offensive. Northern Alliance troops would seize Mazari Sharif, thereby cutting off Taliban supply lines and enabling the flow of equipment from the countries to the north, followed by an attack on Kabul itself.
====Areas most targeted====
During the early months of the war the US military had a limited presence on the ground.  The plan was that special forces, and intelligence officers with a military background, would serve as liaisons with Afghan militias opposed to the Taliban, would advance after the cohesiveness of the Taliban forces was disrupted by American air power.<ref name=ColbyFreePress20011015>
{{cite news
| title=U.S. jets hit suspected bin Laden camp
| publisher=Colby Free Press
| date=October 15, 2001
| accessdate=2008-05-17
| quote=
}}</ref><ref name=FoxNews20011105>
{{cite news
| title=Massive American Bombing on Taliban Front Lines
| publisher=Fox News Channel
| author=Refet Kaplan
| date=Monday, November 5, 2001
| accessdate=2008-05-19
| quote=
}}</ref><ref name=NYTimes20011028>
{{cite news
| title=Waging a Deadly Stalemate on Afghanistan's Front Line
| publisher=New York Times
| author=David Rodhe
| date=October 28, 2001
| accessdate=2008-05-19
| quote=
}}</ref>

The B52 bombers.<ref name=ColbyFreePress20011015/><ref name=FoxNews20011105/><ref name=NYTimes20011028/><ref name=AsiaTimes20011207>
{{cite news| title= Taking a spin in Tora Bora
| publisher=Asia Times
| author=Pepe Escobar
| date=December 7, 2001
| accessdate=2008-05-19
| quote=
}}</ref>

The U.S. forces and the Northern Alliance also began to diverge in their objectives. While the U.S. was continuing the search for Osama bin Laden, the Northern Alliance was pressuring for more support in their efforts to finish off the Taliban and control the country.

Scott Peterson, writing in the ''Christian Science Monitor'', quoted a defector he described as the 
Taliban deputy interior minister, and "highest ranking Taliban defector to date".<ref name=CSMonitor20011204/>  
According to to Peterson this defector described the American bombardment as very effective:
:{| class="wikitable"
| 
*"Kabul city has seen many rockets, but this was a different thing."
*"The American bombing of Taliban trenches, cars, and troops caused us to be defeated. All ways were blocked, so there was no way to carry food or ammunition to the front. All trenches of the Taliban were destroyed, and many people were killed."
|}

In the early months of the war there were reports of several friendly fire incidents.<ref name=Cnn20011001>
{{cite news
| url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/central/07/01/afghanistan.bombing/
| title=Afghan: U.S. bomb hits wedding party
| publisher=CNN
| author=
| date=July 1, 2002
| accessdate=2008-05-19
| quote=At least 20 people were killed and more than 60 injured in Afghanistan when a U.S. plane dropped a bomb on a wedding party as celebrants fired into the air, an Afghan defense spokesman said Monday.
}}
[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.cnn.com%2F2002%2FWORLD%2Fasiapcf%2Fcentral%2F07%2F01%2Fafghanistan.bombing%2F&date=2008-05-19 mirror]
</ref><ref name=TheGuardian20020702>
{{cite news
| title=US bomb blunder kills 30 at Afghan wedding
| publisher=The Guardian
| author=Luke Harding, Matthew Engel
| date=July 1, 2002
| accessdate=2008-05-19
| quote=
}}
[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.guardian.co.uk%2Fworld%2F2002%2Fjul%2F02%2Fafghanistan.lukeharding&date=2008-05-19 mirror]
</ref>

=== Battle for Mazari Sharif ===
thumb|260px|[[Military of the United States|U.S. Forces work with the Northern Alliance on Horseback on November 12, 2001.]]
On battle for Mazari Sharif began. Mazari Sharif is a large city north of the Hindu Kush mountain range that bisects Afghanistan.  There are enclaves of Pashtun speaking communities in the area, so, unlike much of Northern Afghanistan, the Taliban had a stronger presence there.<ref name=CSMonitor20011204>
{{cite news
| title=A view from behind the lines in the US air war: Special operatives are key to the success of American airstrikes in Afghanistan
| publisher=Christian Science Monitor
| author=Scott Peterson
| date=December 4, 2001
| accessdate=2008-05-19
| quote=
}}</ref>  U.S. bombers carpet-bombed Taliban defenders concentrated in the Chesmay-e-Safa gorge that marks the entrance to the city. At 2 p.m., Northern Alliance forces then swept in from the south and west, seizing the city's main airport. The forces then mopped up the remnants of the Taliban in the gorge in front of the city, meeting only light resistance. Within 4 hours, the battle was over. By sunset, what remained of the Taliban was retreating to the south and east. Mazari Sharif was taken. The next day, Northern Alliance forces seeking retribution combed the city, shooting suspected Taliban supporters in on-the-spot executions. Approximately 520 Taliban, demoralized and defeated, many of whom were fighters from Pakistan, were shot when they were discovered hiding in a school. Looting was also widespread throughout Mazari Sharif.

The same day the massacres of former Taliban supporters were taking place in Mazari Sharif, November 10, Northern Alliance forces swept through five northern provinces in a rapid advance. The fall of Mazari Sharif had triggered a complete collapse of Taliban positions. Many local commanders switched sides rather than fight. The regime was beginning to unravel at the seams throughout the north. Many of their front line troops were outflanked and then surrounded in the northern city of Kunduz as the Northern Alliance drove past them southwards. Even in the south, their hold on power seemed tenuous at best. The religious police stopped their regular patrols. A complete implosion of the Taliban regime seemed imminent.

=== The fall of Kabul ===
Finally, on the night of November 12, Taliban forces fled from the city of Kabul, leaving under cover of darkness. By the time Northern Alliance forces arrived in the afternoon of November 13, only bomb craters, burned foliage, and the burnt out shells of Taliban gun emplacements and positions were there to greet them. A group of about twenty hardline Arab fighters hiding in the city's park were the only remaining defenders. This Taliban group was killed in a brief 15-minute gun battle, being heavily outnumbered and having had little more than some shrub to shield them. After these forces were neutralized Kabul was in the hands of the US/NATO forces and the Northern Alliance.

The fall of Kabul marked the beginning of a collapse of Taliban positions across the map. Within 24 hours, all of the Afghan provinces along the surrender and continued to put up resistance. By then, the Taliban had been forced back to their heartland in southeastern Afghanistan around Kandahar.

By November 13, al-Qaeda and Taliban forces, with the possible inclusion of Osama bin Laden, had regrouped and were concentrating their forces in the Tora Bora cave complex, on the Pakistan border 50 kilometers (30 mi) southwest of Jalalabad, to prepare for a stand against the Northern Alliance and US/NATO forces. Nearly 2,000 al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters fortified themselves in positions within bunkers and caves, and by November 16, U.S. bombers began bombing the mountain fortress. Around the same time, CIA and Special Forces operatives were already at work in the area, enlisting and paying local warlords to join the fight and planning an attack on the Tora Bora complex.

=== The fall of Kunduz ===
Just as the bombardment at Tora Bora was stepped up, the siege of Kunduz that began on November 16 was continuing. Finally, after nine days of heavy fighting and American aerial bombardment, Taliban fighters surrendered to Northern Alliance forces on November 25-November 26. Shortly before the surrender, Pakistani aircraft arrived ostensibly to evacuate a few hundred intelligence and military personnel who had been in Afghanistan previous to the U.S. invasion for the purpose of aiding the Taliban's ongoing fight against the Northern Alliance. However, during this airlift, it is alleged that up to five thousand people were evacuated from the region, including Taliban and al-Qaeda troops allied to the Pakistanis in Afghanistan. <ref name="www_newyorker_com10"></ref><ref name="www_msnbc_com11"></ref><ref name="news_bbc_co_uk12"></ref>

On a widespread revolt by 300 prisoners, who soon seized the southern half of the complex, once a medieval SBS unit along with some Green berets and Northern Alliance, AC-130 gunships and other aircraft took part providing strafing fire on several occasions, as well as a bombing airstrikes.<ref>{{cite news
| author =Alex Perry
| title=Inside the Battle at Qala-i-Jangi
| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1001390-1,00.html
| date=2007-04-08
| publisher=Time Magazine
| accessdate=2007-04-09}}
</ref>
86 of the Taliban prisoners survived, and around 50 Northern Alliance soldiers were killed. The quashing of the revolt marked the end of the combat in northern Afghanistan, where local Northern Alliance warlords were now firmly in control.

=== Consolidation: the taking of Kandahar ===

By the end of November, tribal fighters, led by Marines, ferried in by CH-53E Super Stallion helicopters, set up a Forward Operating Base known as Camp Rhino in the desert south of Kandahar on November 25. This was the coalition's first strategic foothold in Afghanistan, and was the stepping stone to establishing other operating bases. The first significant combat involving U.S. ground forces occurred a day after Rhino was captured when 15 armored vehicles approached the base and were attacked by helicopter gunships, destroying many of them. Meanwhile, the airstrikes continued to pound Taliban positions inside the city, where Mullah Omar was holed up. Omar, the Taliban leader, remained defiant despite the fact that his movement only controlled 4 out of the 30 Afghan provinces by the end of November and called on his forces to fight to the death.

thumb|right|200px|[[Tommy Franks meets with Army Special Forces.]]

As the Taliban teetered on the brink of losing their last bastion, the U.S. focus increased on the Tora Bora. Local tribal militias, numbering over 2,000 strong and paid and organized by Special Forces and CIA mortars, rocket launchers, and assault rifles to higher fortified positions and dug in for the battle.

By December 6, Omar finally began to signal that he was ready to surrender Kandahar to tribal forces. His forces broken by heavy U.S. bombing and living constantly on the run within Kandahar to prevent himself from becoming a target, even Mullah Omar's morale lagged. Recognizing that he could not hold on to Kandahar much longer, he began signaling a willingness in negotiations to turn the city over to the tribal leaders, assuming that he and his top men received some protection. The U.S. government rejected any amnesty for Omar or any Taliban leaders. On December 7, Mullah Mohammad Omar slipped out of the city of Kandahar with a group of his hardcore loyalists and moved northwest into the mountains of Paktia and Paktika Provinces.  Nevertheless, Kandahar, the last Taliban-controlled city, had fallen, and the majority of the Taliban fighters had disbanded. The border town of Spin Boldak was surrendered on the same day, marking the end of Taliban control in Afghanistan. The Afghan tribal forces under Gul Agha seized the city of Kandahar while the Marines took control of the airport outside and established a U.S. base.

=== Battle of Tora Bora ===

Al-Qaeda fighters were still holding out in the mountains of Tora Bora, however, while an anti-Taliban tribal militia steadily pushed bin Laden back across the difficult terrain, backed by withering air strikes guided in by U.S. and UK Special Forces. Facing defeat, the al-Qaeda forces agreed to a truce to give them time to surrender their weapons. In retrospect, however, many believe that the truce was a ruse to allow important al-Qaeda figures, including Osama bin Laden, to escape. On December 12, the fighting flared again, probably initiated by a rear guard buying time for the main force's escape through the White Mountains into the tribal areas of Pakistan. Once again, tribal forces backed by British and U.S. special operations troops and air support pressed ahead against fortified al-Qaeda positions in caves and bunkers scattered throughout the mountainous region. By December 17, the last cave complex had been taken and their defenders overrun. A search of the area by U.S. and UK forces continued into January, but no sign of bin Laden or the al-Qaeda leadership emerged. It is almost unanimously believed that they had already slipped away into the tribal areas of Pakistan to the south and east. It is estimated that around 200 of the al-Qaeda fighters were killed during the battle, along with an unknown number of anti-Taliban tribal fighters. No U.S. or UK deaths were reported.

== 2002: Operation Anaconda ==

thumb|right|200px|Soldiers board a [[CH-47 Chinook|Chinook in Operation Anaconda.]]

Following Tora Bora, U.S. forces and their Afghan allies consolidated their position in the country. Following a Shahi-Kot mountains of insurgents was to use the region as a base area for launching guerrilla attacks and possibly a major offensive in the style of the Mujahideen who battled Soviet forces during the 1980s.

U.S. and allied Afghan militia intelligence sources soon picked up on this buildup in Paktia province and prepared a massive push to counter it. On rocket-propelled grenades, and mortars, were entrenched into caves and bunkers in the hillsides at an altitude that was largely above 10,000 feet (3,000 m). They used "hit and run" tactics, opening fire on the U.S. and Afghan forces and then retreating back into their caves and bunkers to weather the return fire and persistent U.S. bombing raids. To compound the situation for the coalition troops, U.S. commanders initially underestimated the Taliban and al-Qaeda forces as a last isolated pocket numbering fewer than 200. It turned out that the guerrillas numbered between 1,000-5,000 according to some estimates and that they were receiving reinforcements.<ref></ref>
thumb|right|200px|An Anti-Taliban Forces (ATF) fighter wraps a bandolier of ammunition for his 7.62mm PK Kalashinkov machine gun around his body as ATF personnel help secure a compound in the Helmand Province of Afghanistan, January 2002.
By March 6, eight Americans and seven Afghan soldiers had been killed and reportedly 400 opposing forces had also been killed in the fighting. The coalition casualties stemmed from a friendly fire incident that killed one soldier, the downing of two helicopters by rocket-propelled grenades and small arms fire that killed seven soldiers, and the pinning down of U.S. forces being inserted into what was coined as "Objective Ginger" that resulted in dozens of wounded.<ref></ref> However, several hundred guerrillas escaped the dragnet heading to the Waziristan tribal areas across the border in Pakistan.

During Operation Anaconda and other missions during 2002 and 2003, special forces from several western nations were also involved in operations. These included the New Zealand Special Air Service and Norwegian Marinejegerkommandoen.

=== Post-Anaconda operations ===
Following the battle at Shahi-Kot, it is believed that the al-Qaeda fighters established sanctuaries among tribal protectors in Pakistan, from which they regained their strength and later began launching cross-border raids on U.S. forces by the summer months of 2002. Guerrilla units, numbering between 5 and 25 men, still regularly crossed the border from their sanctuaries in Pakistan to fire rockets at U.S. bases and ambush American convoys and patrols, as well as Afghan National Army troops, Afghan militia forces working with the U.S-led coalition, and non-governmental organizations. The area around the U.S. base at Shkin in Paktika province saw some of the heaviest activity.

Meanwhile, Taliban forces continued to remain in hiding in the rural regions of the four southern provinces that formed their heartland, Kandahar, Zabul, Helmand Province, and Uruzgan. In the wake of Operation Anaconda The Pentagon requested that British Royal Marines who are highly trained in mountain warfare[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_Warfare_Training_Center], be deployed. They conducted a number of missions over several weeks with varying results. The Taliban, who during the summer of 2002 numbered in the hundreds, avoided combat with U.S. forces and their Afghan allies as much as possible and melted away into the caves and tunnels of remote Afghan mountain ranges or across the border into Pakistan during operations.<ref></ref>

== 2003-2005: Renewed Taliban insurgency ==

After managing to evade U.S. forces throughout the summer of 2002, the remnants of the Taliban gradually began to regain their confidence and started to begin preparations to launch the insurgency that Mullah Muhammad Omar had promised during the Taliban's last days in power.<ref></ref> During September, Taliban forces began a recruitment drive in Pashtun areas in both Afghanistan and Pakistan to launch a renewed "jihad" or holy war against the Afghan government and the U.S-led coalition. terrorist tactics, according to Afghan sources and a United Nations report.<ref></ref> Most of the new recruits were drawn from the madrassas or religious schools of the tribal areas of Pakistan, from which the Taliban had originally arisen. Major bases, a few with as many as 200 men, were created in the mountainous tribal areas of Pakistan by the summer of 2003. The will of the Pakistani paramilitaries stationed at border crossings to prevent such infiltration was called into question, and Pakistani military operations proved of little use.<ref name="CSMontorTalibanResurge"></ref>

The Taliban gradually reorganized and reconstituted their forces over the winter, preparing for a summer offensive. They established a new mode of operation: gathered into groups of around 50 to launch attacks on isolated outposts and convoys of Afghan soldiers, police, or militia and then breaking up into groups of 5-10 men to evade subsequent offensives. U.S. forces in the strategy were attacked indirectly, through rocket attacks on bases and improvised explosive devices. To coordinate the strategy, Mullah Omar named a 10-man leadership council for the resistance, with himself at the head.<ref name="CSMontorTalibanResurge" /> Five operational zones were created, assigned to various Taliban commanders such as the key Taliban leader Mullah Dadullah, in charge of Zabul province operations.<ref name="CSMontorTalibanResurge" /> Al-Qaeda forces in the east had a bolder strategy of concentrating on the Americans and catching them when they could with elaborate ambushes.

The first sign that Taliban forces were regrouping came on January 27, 2003, during Operation Mongoose, when a band of fighters allied with the Taliban and Hezb-i-Islami were discovered and assaulted by U.S. forces at the Adi Ghar cave complex 15 miles (24 km) north of Spin Boldak.<ref name="www_globalsecurity_org1"></ref> 18 rebels were reported killed and no U.S. casualties reported. The site was suspected to be a base to funnel supplies and fighters from Pakistan. The first isolated attacks by relatively large Taliban bands on Afghan targets also appeared around that time.
thumb|right|250px|Marines searching for Taliban fighters in the spring of 2005.
As the summer continued, the attacks gradually increased in frequency in the "Taliban heartland." Dozens of Afghan government soldiers, humanitarian workers, and several U.S. soldiers died in the raids, ambushes, and rocket attacks. In addition to the guerrilla attacks, Taliban fighters began building up their forces in the district of Dai Chopan, a district in Zabul Province that also straddles Kandahar and Uruzgan and is at the very center of the Taliban heartland. Dai Chopan district is a remote and sparsely populated corner of southeastern Afghanistan composed of towering, rocky mountains interspersed with narrow gorges. Taliban fighters decided it would be the perfect area to make a stand against the Afghan government and the coalition forces. Over the course of the summer, perhaps the largest concentration of Taliban militants gathered in the area since the fall of the regime, with up to 1,000 guerrillas regrouping. Over 220 people, including several dozen Afghan police, were killed in August 2003 as Taliban fighters gained strength.

=== Coalition response ===
As a result, coalition forces began preparing offensives to root out the rebel forces. In late August 2005, Afghan government forces backed by U.S troops and heavy American aerial bombardment advanced upon Taliban positions within the mountain fortress. After a one-week battle, Taliban forces were routed with up to 124 fighters (according to Afghan government estimates) killed. Taliban spokesmen, however, denied the high casualty figure and U.S estimates were somewhat lower.

== 2006: NATO in southern Afghanistan ==

From January 2006, a NATO International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) force started to replace the U.S. troops of Operation Enduring Freedom in southern Afghanistan. The British 16th Air Assault Brigade (later reinforced by Royal Marines) formed the core of the force in Southern Afghanistan, along with troops and helicopters from Australia, Canada and the Netherlands. The initial force consisted of roughly 3,300 British, <ref name="news_bbc_co_uk2"></ref> 2,300 Canadian, <ref name="news_bbc_co_uk3"></ref> 1,963 from the Netherlands, <ref name="news_bbc_co_uk4"></ref> 290 from Denmark, <ref name="www_centcom_mil5"></ref> 300 from Australia, <ref name="news_bbc_co_uk6"></ref> and 150 from Estonia <ref name="www_defensenews_com7"></ref>. Air support was provided by US, British, Dutch, Norwegian and French combat aircraft and helicopters.

In January 2006, NATO’s focus in southern Afghanistan was to form Provincial Reconstruction Teams with the British leading in Helmand Province and the Netherlands and Canada would lead similar deployments in Orūzgān Province and Kandahar Province respectively. Local Taliban figures voiced opposition to the incoming force and pledged to resist it. <ref name="news_bbc_co_uk8"></ref>

Southern Afghanistan faced in 2006 the deadliest spate of violence in the country since the ousting of the Taliban regime by U.S.-led forces in 2001, as the newly deployed NATO troops battled resurgent militants. NATO operations have been led by British, Canadian and Dutch commanders. Operation Mountain Thrust was launched on May 17, 2006 with the purpose of rooting out Taliban forces. In July, Canadian Forces launched Operation Medusa in an attempt to clear the areas of Taliban fighters once and for all, supported by US, British, Dutch and Danish forces. Further NATO operations included the Battle of Panjwaii, Operation Mountain Fury and Operation Falcon Summit. The fighting for NATO forces was intense throughout the second half of 2006. NATO has been successful in achieving tactical victories over the Taliban and denied areas to them, but the Taliban were not completely defeated, and NATO had to continue operations into 2007.

== 2007: Coalition offensive ==

thumb|250px|A U.S. soldier from [[10th Mountain Division (United States)|10th Mountain Division, patrols Aranas, Afghanistan.]]
thumb|250px|[[Dutch army PzH 2000 firing on Taliban in Chora. June 16, 2007. Photo by David Axe.]]
In January and February 2007, British Royal Marines mounted Operation Volcano to clear insurgents from firing points in the village of Barikju, north of Kajaki. <ref name="www_mod_uk9"></ref> This was followed by Operation Achilles, a major sweeping offensive that started in March and ended in late May. The UK ministry of defence announced its intention to bring British troop levels in the country up to 7,700 (committed until 2009).<ref name="www_mod_uk10"></ref> Further operations, such as Operation Silver and Operation Silicon, were conducted to keep up the pressure on the Taliban in the hopes of blunting their expected spring offensive.<ref name="www_mod_uk11"></ref><ref name="www_mod_uk12"></ref>