right|250px|thumb|मनुष्य: पुरुष और स्त्री
'''मनुष्य''' (लात. Homo sapiens) — स्तनपायी मांसाहारी प्रधानजंतुओं की एक जाति, जो बात करने, अमूर्त्त सोचने, ऊर्ध्व चलने तथा परिश्रम के साधन बनाने योग्य है। <br />
मनुष्य की तात्विक प्रवीणताएँ हैं: तापीय संसाधन के द्वारा खाना बनाना और कपडों का उपयोग।
मनुष्य प्राणी जगतका सर्वाधिक विकसित जीव है।जैव विवर्तन के फलस्वरूप मनुष्य ने जीव के सर्वोत्तम गुणों को पाया है। मनुष्य अपने साथ साथ प्राकृतिक परिवेश को भी अपने अनुकूल बनाने की क्षमता रखता है। अपने इसी गुण के कारण हम मनुष्यों नें प्रकृति के साथ काफी खिलवाड़ किया है।

cv:Тăнлă çын

dz:Omo dapeonz

eo:Homo
es:Homo sapiens

frp:Humen
fy:Minske
ga:Duine

hak:Ngìn-lui

ia:Esser human

jbo:remna

kw:Tus

li:Mins
ln:Moto

{{Taxobox
| name = Human<ref name=msw3></ref>
| image = PPlaqueB.png
| image_caption = Humans depicted on the Pioneer&nbsp;plaque
| fossil_range = Pleistocene - Recent
| status = Not rated
| status_system =
| domain = Eukaryota
| regnum = Animalia
| phylum = Chordata
| classis = Mammalia
| ordo = Primates
| familia = Hominidae
| genus = ''Homo''
| species = '''''H. sapiens'''''
| subspecies = '''''H. s. sapiens'''''
| trinomial = ''Homo sapiens sapiens''
| trinomial_authority = Linnaeus, 1758
}}

'''Human beings''', or '''humans'''  ( — bipedal highly developed abstract reasoning, language, introspection, and emotion. This mental capability, combined with an erect body carriage that frees the forelimbs (arms) for manipulating objects, has allowed humans to make far greater use of tools than any other species. Humans now permanently inhabit every continent on Earth, except Antarctica (although several governments maintain permanently- and seasonally-staffed research stations there). Humans also now have a continuous presence in low Earth orbit, occupying the International Space Station. The human population on Earth amounts to over 6.7&nbsp;billion, as of July, 2008.<ref name="popclock">{{cite web
|url=http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/popclockworld.html
|title=World POPClock Projection
|accessdate=2008-07-05
|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division/International Programs Center}}</ref>

Like most primates, humans are social by nature. However, they are particularly adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression, exchanging of ideas, and organization. Humans create complex families to social norms, and laws, which together form the basis of human society. Humans have a marked appreciation for beauty and aesthetics, which, combined with the desire for self-expression, has led to innovations such as culture, art, literature and music.

Humans are notable for their desire to understand and influence the world around them, seeking to explain and manipulate natural clothe themselves, and manipulate and develop numerous other technologies. Humans pass down their skills and knowledge to the next generations through education.

== History ==
=== Origin ===

thumb|right|upright|A reconstruction of ''[[Australopithecus afarensis'', a human ancestor that had developed bipedalism, but which lacked the large brain of modern humans.]]

The scientific study of Homo'', but usually involves studying other hominids and hominines as well, such as ''Australopithecus''. "Modern humans" are defined as the ''Homo sapiens'' species, of which the only extant subspecies - our own - is known as ''Homo sapiens sapiens''. ''Homo sapiens idaltu'' (roughly translated as "elder wise human"), the other known subspecies, is now extinct.<ref>[http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/human/# Human evolution: the fossil evidence in 3D], by Philip L. Walker and Edward H. Hagen, Dept. of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, retrieved April 5, 2005.</ref> Anatomically modern humans first appear in the fossil record in Africa about 130,000 years ago, although studies of molecular biology give evidence that the approximate time of divergence from the common ancestor of all modern human populations was 200,000 years ago.<ref>[http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/sap.htm Human Ancestors Hall: ''Homo Sapiens''] - URL retrieved October 13, 2006</ref><ref></ref>

The closest living relatives of ''Homo sapiens'' are the two lineage diverged from that of chimpanzees about five million years ago, and from that of gorillas about eight million years ago. However, a hominid skull discovered in Chad in 2001, classified as ''Sahelanthropus tchadensis'', is approximately seven million years old, which may indicate an earlier divergence.<ref></ref>

The Recent African Origin (RAO), or "out-of-Africa", hypothesis proposes that modern humans evolved in Africa before later migrating outwards to replace hominids in other parts of the world. Evidence from archaeogenetics accumulating since the 1990s has lent strong support to RAO, and has marginalized the  competing multiregional hypothesis, which proposed that modern humans evolved, at least in part, from independent hominid populations.<ref>Eswaran, V., Harpending, H., & Rogers, A. R. "[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6WJS-4G3SC6X-1/2/aae7c2810f0d87628e228363c0e1bd66 Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans]", in ''Journal of Human Evolution'', Vol.&nbsp;49, No.&nbsp;1, 2005, pp.&nbsp;1-18.</ref> Geneticists Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the University of Utah propose that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species. They also propose that during the Late Pleistocene, the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs &ndash; no more than 10,000, and possibly as few as 1,000 &ndash; resulting in a very small residual gene pool. Various reasons for this hypothetical bottleneck have been postulated, one being the Toba catastrophe theory.

Human evolution is characterized by a number of important morphological, developmental, physiological and behavioural changes, which have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The first major morphological change was the evolution of a bipedal locomotor adaptation from an arboreal or semi-arboreal one,<ref>Vančata1 V., & Vančatová, M. A. "[http://www.springerlink.com/content/h514455w35006v4n/ Major features in the evolution of early hominoid locomotion]". Springer Netherlands, Volume 2, Number 6, December 1987. pp.517-537.</ref> with all its attendant adaptations, such as a valgus knee, low intermembral index (long legs relative to the arms), and reduced upper-body strength.

Later, ancestral humans developed a much larger brain &ndash; typically 1,400&nbsp;cm³ in modern humans, over twice the size of that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. The pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs from that of other apes (Physical anthropologists argue that the differences between the structure of human brains and those of other apes are even more significant than their differences in size.

Other significant morphological changes included: the evolution of a power and precision grip;<ref>Brues, Alice M. & Snow, Clyde C. "Physical Anthropology". ''Biennial Review of Anthropology'', Vol.&nbsp;4, 1965. pp.&nbsp;1-39.</ref> a reduced masticatory system; a reduction of the canine tooth; and the descent of the larynx and hyoid bone, making speech possible. An important physiological change in humans was the evolution of hidden oestrus, or concealed ovulation, which may have coincided with the evolution of important behavioural changes, such as pair bonding. Another significant behavioural change was the development of material culture, with human-made objects becoming increasingly common and diversified over time. The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate.<ref>Boyd, Robert & Silk, Joan B. (2003). ''How Humans Evolved''. New York: Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97854-0.</ref><ref>Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1963). ''Anthropology and the natural sciences-The problem of human evolution'', ''Current Anthropology '4'' (2): 138-148.</ref>

The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome display directional selection in the past 15,000 years.<ref></ref>

=== Rise of civilization ===

thumb|250px|The rise of [[agriculture led to the foundation of stable human settlements.]]
The most widely accepted view among current anthropologists is that ''Homo sapiens'' originated in the African resources.

Until c.&nbsp;10,000 years ago, most humans lived as use of metal tools. Agriculture encouraged trade and cooperation, and led to complex society. Because of the significance of this date for human society, it is the epoch of the Holocene calendar or Human Era.

About 6,000&nbsp;years ago, the first proto-states developed in Indus Valley. Military forces were formed for protection, and government bureaucracies for administration. States cooperated and competed for resources, in some cases waging wars. Around 2,000–3,000 years ago, some states, such as Persia, India, China, Rome, and Greece, developed through conquest into the first expansive empires. Influential religions, such as Judaism, originating in the Middle East, and Hinduism, a religious tradition that originated in South Asia, also rose to prominence at this time.

The late Muslim empires. In classical learning and inventions such as the printing press led to the exploration and 17th century and the 18th – 19th centuries promoted major innovations in transport, such as the railway and automobile; energy development, such as coal and electricity; and government, such as representative democracy and Communism.

As a result of such changes, modern humans live in a world that has become increasingly globalized and interconnected. Although this has encouraged the growth of science, art, and technology, it has also led to culture clashes, the development and use of weapons of mass destruction, and increased environmental destruction and pollution, affecting not only themselves but also most other life forms on the planet.

== Habitat and population ==

thumb|right|275px|Humans have structured their environment in extensive ways in order to adapt to problems such as high population density, as shown in this image of [[Hong Kong.]]

Early water and, depending on the habitats by various methods, such as through irrigation, urban planning, construction, transport, manufacturing goods, deforestation and desertification. With the advent of large-scale trade and transport infrastructure, proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many places these factors are no longer a driving force behind the growth and decline of a population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered is often a major determinant in population change.

Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to all climates. Within the last few decades, humans have explored Antarctica, the ocean depths, and space, although long-term habitation of these environments is not yet possible. With a population of over six billion, humans are among the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. The remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%). 

Human habitation within Moon. As of early 2008, no other celestial body has been visited by human beings, although there has been a continuous human presence in space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on October 31, 2000.  Other celestial bodies have, however, been visited by human-made objects.  

Since 1800, the cities include various forms of pollution and crime,<ref>[http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/usrv98.htm Urban, Suburban, and Rural Victimization, 1993-98] U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics,. Accessed 29 Oct 2006</ref> especially in inner city and suburban slums. Benefits of urban living include increased literacy, access to the global canon of human knowledge and decreased susceptibility to rural famines.

Humans have had a dramatic effect on the environment. It has been hypothesized that human predation has contributed to the extinction of numerous species. As humans stand at the top of the food chain and are not generally preyed upon, they have been described as superpredators.<ref>''mass extinction which, if it continues at its current rate, is predicted to wipe out half of all species over the next century.<ref>Wilson, E.O. (2002). ''in The Future of Life''.</ref>

== Biology ==

=== Physiology and genetics ===

thumbnail|200px|right|An antiquated diagram of a [[male human skeleton.]]
Human body types vary substantially. Although body size is largely determined by diet and height of an adult human is about 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6&nbsp;feet) tall, although this varies significantly from place to place.<ref></ref><ref>"Pygmy." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com Accessed 30 Oct. 2006. http://www.answers.com/topic/pygmy</ref> The average weight for a human is 76-83 kg (168-183 lbs) for males and 54-64 kg (120-140 lbs) for females.<ref>[http://www.articleworld.org/index.php/Human_weight]</ref> Weight can also vary geographically (see also; locomotion, thus leaving their arms available for manipulating objects using their hands, aided especially by opposable thumbs. 

Although humans appear relatively hairless compared to other primates, with notable hair growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has more hair follicles on his or her body than the average chimpanzee. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less heavily pigmented than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see.<ref>''Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Way'' by Nicholas Wade, ''New York Times'', August 19 2003.</ref>

The hue of human hair and skin is determined by the presence of brown to red to, most commonly, black,<ref></ref> depending on the amount of melanin (an effective sun blocking pigment) in the skin. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a protection against ultraviolet solar radiation. More recently, however, it has been argued that particular skin colors are an adaptation to balance folate, which is destroyed by ultraviolet radiation, and vitamin D, which requires sunlight to form.<ref>Jablonski, N.G. & Chaplin, G. (2000). ''[http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/chem/faculty/leontis/chem447/PDF_files/Jablonski_skin_color_2000.pdf The evolution of human skin coloration]'' (pdf), 'Journal of Human Evolution 39: 57-106.</ref> The skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is geographically stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (sun tanning) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.<ref>Harding, Rosalind M., Eugene Healy, Amanda J. Ray, Nichola S. Ellis, Niamh Flanagan, Carol Todd, Craig Dixon, Antti Sajantila, Ian J. Jackson, Mark A. Birch-Machin, and Jonathan L. Rees (2000). ''Evidence for variable selective pressures at MC1R''. American Journal of Human Genetics 66: 1351 – 1361.</ref><ref>Robin, Ashley (1991). ''Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> Humans tend to be physically weaker than other similarly sized primates, with young, conditioned male humans having been shown to be unable to match the strength of female orangutans which are at least three times stronger.<ref name="Schwartz"></ref>

Humans have proportionately shorter palates and much smaller teeth than other primates. They are the only primates to have short 'flush' canine teeth. Humans have characteristically crowded teeth, with gaps from lost teeth usually closing up quickly in young specimens. Humans are gradually losing their wisdom teeth, with some individuals having them congenitally absent.<ref name="Revolution" />

The average sleep requirement is between seven and eight hours a day for an adult and nine to ten hours for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Experiencing less sleep than this is common in modern societies; this sleep deprivation can lead to negative effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort.

Humans are an eukaryotic species. Each diploid cell has two sets of 23 sex chromosomes. By present estimates, humans have approximately 20,000 – 25,000 genes. Like other mammals, humans have an recessive diseases associated with X-linked genes, such as haemophilia, affect men more often than women.

=== Life cycle ===
thumb|right|A human embryo at 5 weeks
The human life cycle is similar to that of other placental mammals. The fertilized egg divides inside the female's uterus to become an embryo, which over a period of thirty-eight weeks (9 months) of gestation becomes a human fetus. After this span of time, the fully-grown fetus is birthed from the woman's body and breathes independently as an infant for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognize the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend personhood earlier to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus.

Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful labors lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon and often leads to the death of the mother, or the child.<ref>According to the July 2, 2007 ''Newsweek'' magazine, a woman dies in childbirth every minute, most often due to uncontrolled bleeding and infection, with the world's poorest women most vulnerable.  The lifetime risk is 1 in 16 in sub-Saharan Africa, compared to 1 in 2,800 in developed countries.</ref> This is because of both the relatively large fetal head circumference (for housing the brain) and the mother's relatively narrow pelvis (a trait required for successful bipedalism, by way of natural selection).<ref></ref><ref></ref> The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain relatively hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times more common than in developed countries.<ref></ref>

thumb|left|250px|Two young human females photographed at an Inter-racial Christmas Seals Camp in August 1943<ref>"USDA Photo by Gordon Parks". United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved on [[February 05, 2008.</ref>]]
In developed countries, infants are typically 3 – 4 kg (6 – 9&nbsp;pounds) in weight and 50 – 60 cm (20 – 24&nbsp;inches) in height at birth.<ref></ref> However, low birth weight is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of infant mortality in these regions.<ref></ref> Helpless at birth, humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching sexual maturity at 12 to 15&nbsp;years of age. Females continue to develop physically until around the age of 18, whereas male development continues until around age 21. The human life span can be split into a number of stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood and old age. The lengths of these stages, however, have varied across cultures and time periods. Compared to other primates, humans experience an unusually rapid growth spurt during adolescence, where the body grows 25% in size. Chimpanzees, for example, grow only 14%.<ref>Leakey, Richard; Lewin, Roger. Origins Reconsidered - In Search of What Makes Us Human. Sherma B.V., 1992.</ref>

There are significant differences in life expectancy around the world. The developed world is generally aging, with the median age around 40&nbsp;years (highest in Monaco at 45.1&nbsp;years). In the developing world the median age is between 15 and 20 years. Life expectancy at birth in Hong Kong, China is 84.8 years for a female and 78.9 for a male, while in Swaziland, primarily because of AIDS, it is 31.3 years for both sexes.<ref>[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/ "Human Development Report 2006,"] United Nations Development Programme, pp. 363-366, November 9 2006</ref> While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ ''The World Factbook''], U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, retrieved April 2, 2005.</ref> The number of centenarians (humans of age 100 years or older) in the world was estimated by the United Nations at 210,000 in 2002.<ref>[http://www.un.org/ageing/note5713.doc.htm U.N. Statistics on Population Ageing], United Nations press release, February 28, 2002, retrieved April 2, 2005</ref> At least one person, Jeanne Calment, is known to have reached the age of 122 years; higher ages have been claimed but they are not well substantiated. Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or older for every 100 women of that age group, and among the oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women.

Humans are unique in the widespread onset of female menopause during the latter stage of life. Menopause is believed to have arisen due to the Grandmother hypothesis, in which it is in the mother's reproductive interest to forgo the risks of death from childbirth at older ages in exchange for investing in the viability of her already living offspring.<ref></ref>

The philosophical questions of when human personhood begins and whether it persists after death are the subject of considerable debate. The prospect of death causes unease or fear for most humans, distinct from the immediate awareness of a threat. Burial ceremonies are characteristic of human societies, often accompanied by beliefs in an afterlife or immortality.

=== Diet ===
For hundreds of thousands of years ''Homo sapiens'' employed (and some tribes still do depend on) a hunter-gatherer method as their primary means of food collection, involving combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms) with wild game, which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. It is believed that humans have used fire to prepare and cook food prior to eating since the time of their divergence from ''Homo erectus''.

Humans are vegetarian and vegan diets, often in conjunction with B12 supplements, have been found to completely satisfy nutritional needs in every stage of life.<ref>[http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_933_ENU_HTML.htm online copy available]</ref>

The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science.
In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. Lack of food remains a serious problem, with about 300,000 people starving to death every year.<ref>[http://www.who.int/healthinfo/bod/en/index.html Death and DALY estimates for 2002 by cause for WHO Member States] World Health Organisation. Accessed 29 Oct 2006</ref> Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease.<ref></ref> However global food distribution is not even, and developed, and a few developing countries. The United States Centers for Disease Control (CDC) state that 32% of American adults over the age of 20 are obese, while 66.5% are obese or overweight. Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, with many attributing excessive weight gain to a combination of overeating and insufficient exercise.

At least ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture,<ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/9707/newsbriefs/squash.html Earliest agriculture in the Americas]
[http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2007/213/2 Earliest cultivation of barley]
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5038116.stm Earliest cultivation of figs] - URLs retrieved February 19, 2007</ref> which has substantially altered the kind of food people eat. This has led to increased populations, the development of cities, and because of increased population density, the wider spread of infectious diseases. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, has varied widely by time, location, and culture.

== Psychology ==

thumb|right|A sketch of the human brain imposed upon the profile of [[Michelangelo's David. Sketch by Priyan Weerappuli.]]

The autonomic activities such as the respiration, and cognitive processes constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied in the field of psychology.

Generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, the human brain is believed to be more "intelligent" in general than that of any other known species. While many animals are capable of creating structures and using simple tools — mostly through instinct and mimicry — human technology is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time. Even the most ancient human tools and structures are far more advanced than any structure or tool created by any other animal.<ref>Sagan, Carl (1978). ''The Dragons of Eden''. A Ballantine Book. ISBN 0-345-34629-7</ref> 

Although being vastly more advanced than many species in cognitive abilities, most of these abilities are known in primitive form among other species. Modern anthropology has tended to bear out Darwin's proposition that "the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind".<ref name="AnthropologyTodayApr07">Jonathan Benthall ''[http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2007.00494.x Animal liberation and rights]'' Anthropology Today 23/2 (April 2007):1</ref>

=== Consciousness and thought ===

The human ability to think abstractly may be unparalleled in the animal kingdom. Humans are one of only six species to pass the mirror test — which tests whether an animal recognizes its reflection as an image of itself — along with chimpanzees, orangutans, and dolphins. It has also been argued that pigeons have passed the test.<ref>Robert W. Allan explores a few of these experiments on his webpage:
http://ww2.lafayette.edu/~allanr/mirror.html</ref> In October 2006, three subjective views of oneself and one's environment. The extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world is a matter of debate, as are the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above. The philosopher of cognitive science Daniel Dennett, for example, argues that there is no such thing as a narrative centre called the "mind", but that instead there is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of "software" running in parallel.<ref>Dennett, Daniel (1991). ''Consciousness Explained''. Little Brown & Co, 1991, ISBN 0-316-18065-3.</ref> Psychologist B.F. Skinner has argued that the mind is an explanatory fiction that diverts attention from environmental causes of behavior,<ref>Skinner, B.F. About Behaviorism 1974, page 74-75</ref> and that what are commonly seen as mental processes may be better conceived of as forms of covert verbal behavior.<ref>Skinner, B.F. ''About Behaviorism'', Chapter 7: Thinking</ref>

Humans study the more physical aspects of the mind and brain, and by extension of the nervous system, in the field of phenomenological or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, however, an understanding of brain functions is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields. mental processes underlying behavior. It uses cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development.

Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is experience itself, and access consciousness, which is the processing of the things in experience.<ref name="Bl"> Ned Block: ''On a Confusion about a Function of Consciousness" in: ''The Behavioral and Brain Sciences'', 1995. </ref> Phenomenal consciousness is the state of being conscious, such as when they say "I am conscious." Access consciousness is being conscious ''of'' something in relation to abstract concepts, such as when one says "I am conscious of these words." Various forms of access consciousness include awareness, self-awareness, conscience, stream of consciousness, Husserl's phenomenology, and academic discipline that investigates how humans and human societies interact with both their natural environment and the human social environment.

=== Motivation and emotion ===

actions of human beings. Motivation is based on emotion — specifically, on the search for satisfaction (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of conflict. Positive and negative is defined by the individual brain state, which may be influenced by social norms: a person may be driven to self-injury or violence because their brain is conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of all learned responses. Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the libido are seen to be primary motivators. Within economics motivation is often seen to be based on financial incentives, moral incentives, or coercive incentives. Religions generally posit divine or demonic influences.

Happiness, or the state of being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a common philosophical topic. Some people might define it as the best condition which a human can have — a condition of mental and physical health. Others define it as freedom from want and distress; consciousness of the good order of things; assurance of one's place in the universe or society.

Emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior, though historically many cultures and philosophers have for various reasons discouraged allowing this influence to go unchecked. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, such as love, admiration, or joy, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like hate, envy, or sorrow. There is often a distinction made between refined emotions which are socially learned and survival oriented emotions, which are thought to be innate. Human exploration of emotions as separate from other neurological phenomena is worthy of note, particularly in cultures where emotion is considered separate from physiological state. In some cultural medical theories emotion is considered so synonymous with certain forms of physical health that no difference is thought to exist. The ecstasy.

In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered to be a complex neural trait innate in a variety of domesticated and on-domesticated mammals. These were commonly developed in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. However, when humans function in civilized tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social disorder and crime.

=== Sexuality and love===

hedonistic sense to the enjoyment of activity involving sexual gratification. Sexual desire, or ecstasy and jealousy. The extreme importance of sexuality in the human species can be seen in a number of physical features, among them hidden ovulation, external scrotum and penile design suggesting sperm competition, permanent secondary sexual characteristics, the forming of pair bonds based on sexual attraction as a common social structure and sexual ability in females outside of ovulation. These adaptations indicate that the importance of sexuality in humans is on par with that found in the Bonobo, and that the complex human sexual behaviour has a long evolutionary history.