right|thumb|300px|Mapa d'a Antartida
300px|thumb|right|Nebero Huron, Estreito McFarlane y Isla Greenwich
300px|thumb|right|Base Antartica
L''''Antartida''' u '''Rechión Antartica''' ye un gran espazio inorato en l'antigüidat e que os cartografos d'ixos tiempos clamoron '''Terra Incognita Australis''' u, lo que ye lo mesmo: tierra inconnita d'o sur. Fa 2.500 añadas os griegos ya charraban d'era, entrefilando a suya esistenzia.
A Rechión Antartica albarca dend'os 60° de latitut sur, e abasta: l'Ozián Glazial Antartico, Archipielagos, Islas e o Continén, o cualo tien una forma cuasi zircular de 4.500 quilometros de diametro e tien dos grans dentradas que forman una estreita peninsula en forma de "S", proyeutada sobre a estrimera austral d'o continent sudamericán.

==Binclos esternos==
* [http://www.mfa.government.bg/uploads/imgs/Livingston/livingston.jpg L.L. Ivanov et al, Topographic map of Livingston Island and Greenwich Island]
* [http://apc.mfa.government.bg Comisión bulgara t'a toponimia antartica] 

categoría:Continent
categoría:Antartida

arc:ܐܢܛܐܪܩܛܝܩܐ
as:এন্টাৰ্কটিকা

ba:Антарктика
bat-smg:Antarktėda
bcl:Antartika

be-x-old:Антарктыда

bo:ལྷོ་མཐའི་གླིང་

crh:Antarktida

cv:Антарктида

dsb:Antarktis
dz:ཨེན་ཊཱག་ཊི་ཀ་

eo:Antarkto
es:Antártida

ext:Antáltia

fiu-vro:Antarktiga
fo:Antarktis

frp:Antartica
fur:Antartic
fy:Antarktika
ga:Antartaice
gan:南極洲
gd:Antargtaga

gu:ઍન્ટાર્કટિકા
hak:Nàm-khi̍t-chû

hsb:Antarktis

ia:Antarctica

ig:Antarctica

<div style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 2em; width: 25em; text-align: right; font-size: 0.86em; line-height: normal;"><!-- start of floated right section -->
<div style="border: 1px solid #ccd2d9; background: #f0f6fa; text-align: left; padding: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center;"><!-- start of slate grey box -->
<big>'''Antarctica'''</big>
<div align=center>
230px|A world map showing the continent of Antarctica. (See [[#Politics|''Politics'' section for a clickable map of individual countries.)]]
</div>
{| style="background: transparent; text-align: left; table-layout: auto; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; font-size: 100%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Area (Overall) <br><br> (ice-free) <br><br> (ice-covered)
| style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" |  <br>  <br> 
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Population <br> (permanent) <br> (non-permanent)
| style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | 7th<br> ≈0 <br> ≈1,000
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Government
| style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 04em 0; vertical-align: top" | governed by the Antarctic Treaty System
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Territorial claims
| style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | 
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Reserved the right to make claims
| style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | 
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Time Zones
| style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | None<br> UTC-3 <small>(Graham Land only)</small>
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Internet TLD
| style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | .aq
|-
! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Calling Code
| style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | Dependent on the parent country of each base
|}
</div></div>

thumb|263px|[[Adelie Penguin chicks in MS ''Explorer'' and an iceberg in the background. The image was taken in January 1999. MS ''Explorer'' sank on November 23, 2007, after hitting an iceberg in Antarctica.]]

'''Antarctica''' is mi) in thickness.

On average, Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent, and has the highest average precipitation, except at the coasts, the interior of the continent is technically the largest desert in the world. There are no permanent human residents and there is no evidence of any existing or pre-historic indigenous population. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including penguins, fur seals, mosses, lichen, and many types of algae.

The name ''Antarctica'' is a romanized version of the Greek compound word ''Αntarktiké'' (''Aνταρκτική''), meaning "Opposite of the  year=1940 | url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=%239514 | accessdate=12 February | accessyear=2006}}</ref> Although myths and speculation about a ''[[Terra Australis'' ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the Mikhail Lazarev and Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen. However, the continent remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of resources, and isolation.

The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by twelve countries; to date, forty-six countries have signed the treaty. The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists of many nationalities and with different research interests.<ref name="cia"></ref>

==History==
 ''See also:'' ''List of Antarctic expeditions''
thumb|right|The snow surface at [[Dome C Station is representative of the majority of the continent's surface.]]
thumb|right|An Iceberg dwarfs a ship in this 1920s English magazine illustration of a whaler in the Antarctic

Belief in the existence of a ''Terra Australis''—a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Turkish Piri Reis map. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that South America and Australia were not part of the fabled "Antarctica", geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size.

European maps continued to show this hypothetical land until Captain HMS ''Resolution'' and ''Adventure'', crossed the sealer out of John Davis in Western Antarctica on February 7, 1821, although some historians dispute this claim.

In December 1839, as part of the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the United States Navy (sometimes called the "Ex. Ex.", or "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed from Sydney, Australia, into the Antarctic Ocean, as it was then known, and reported the discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands". That part of Antarctica was later named "Wilkes Land", a name it maintains to this day.

In 1841, explorer Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS ''Erebus'' and ''Terror''.<ref></ref>  Mercator Cooper landed in Eastern Antarctica on January 26, 1853.<ref></ref>
left|thumb|[[Endurance (1912 ship)|''The Endurance'' at night during Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1914.]]
During an expedition led by expedition led by Norwegian polar explorer Scott Expedition reached the pole.

Richard Evelyn Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological and biological research.<ref></ref> However, it was not until October 31, 1956 that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there.<ref></ref>
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<br style="clear:both;">

==Geography==

thumb|right|A satellite composite image of Antarctica.
thumb|right|Maritime Antarctica.
thumb|Size comparison Europe-Antarctica.
Centered asymmetrically around the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, or by the southern waters of the World Ocean. It covers more than 14 million&nbsp;km² (5.4 million&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi), making it the fifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times larger than Europe. The coastline measures 17,968 kilometers (11,160&nbsp;mi) and is mostly characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Coastal types around Antarctica (Drewry, 1983)'''
|-
! Type !! Frequency
|-
| Ice shelf (floating ice front)
|align=right| 44%
|-
| Ice walls (resting on ground)
|align=right|       38%
|-
| Ice stream/outlet glacier (ice front or ice wall)
|align=right| 13%
|-
| Rock
|align=right| 4%
|-
! Total
|align=right| 100%
|}

Antarctica is divided in two by the Western Antarctica and the remainder Eastern Antarctica, because they roughly correspond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to the Greenwich meridian.

About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the sheet of ice averaging at least 1.6 kilometers (1.0&nbsp;mi) thick. The continent has about 90% of the world's ice (and thereby about 70% of the world's precipitation is very low, down to  per year; in a few "blue ice" areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by sublimation and so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccated landscape.

Western Antarctica is covered by the ocean levels would rise by several meters in a relatively geologically short period of time, perhaps a matter of centuries. Several Antarctic flow to one of the many Antarctic ice shelves.

thumb|left|[[Mount Erebus, an active volcano on Ross Island.]]
Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 meters (16,050&nbsp;ft), is located in the Ellsworth Mountains. Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only Mount Erebus is known to be active. Located on Ross Island, Erebus is the southernmost active volcano. There is another famous volcano called Deception Island, which is famous for its giant eruption in 1970. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.<ref></ref> In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the Antarctic Peninsula by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.<ref></ref>

Antarctica is home to more than 70 microbial life. The sealed, frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with Europa. If life is discovered in Lake Vostok, this would strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Europa.<ref></ref><ref></ref> On February 7, 2008, a NASA team embarked on a mission to Lake Untersee, searching for extremophiles in its highly-alkaline waters. If found, these resilient creatures could further bolster the argument for extraterrestrial life in extremely cold, methane-rich environments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2008/07feb_cloroxlake.htm|title=Extremophile Hunt Begins
|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2008-02-08}}</ref>

==Geology==

===Geological history and paleontology===
More than 170 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Over time, Gondwana gradually broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 million years ago.

====Paleozoic era (540–250 mya)====
thumb|right|Survey route
During the Cambrian period, Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the Devonian period (416&nbsp;mya), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time. Ellsworth, Horlick and flora remained. During the Permian period, the plant life became dominated by fern-like plants such as ''Glossopteris'', which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains. Towards the end of the Permian period, continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.<ref name="Stonehouse"></ref>

====Mesozoic era (250–65 mya)====
thumb|left|Bransfield Strait
As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In East Antarctica, the Southern beech began to take over at the end of this period. Hanson Formation, and ''Antarctopelta'') have been described to date.<ref></ref> It was during this period that Gondwana began to break up.

====Gondwana breakup (160–23 mya)====
The cooling of Antarctica occurred stepwise by the continental spread changing the oceanic currents from longitudinal equator-to-pole temperature-equalizing currents to latitudinal currents that preserved and accentuated latitude temperature differences.

Africa separated from Antarctica around 160&nbsp;mya, followed by the Indian subcontinent, in the early Cretaceous (about 125&nbsp;mya). About 65&nbsp;mya, Antarctica (then connected to Australia) still had a tropical to subtropical climate, complete with a marsupial fauna. About 40&nbsp;mya Australia-New Guinea separated from Antarctica, so that latitudinal current could isolate Antarctica from Australia, and so the first ice began to appear. Around 23&nbsp;mya, the Drake Passage opened between Antarctica and South America, which resulted in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The ice spread, replacing the forests that then covered the continent. Since about 15&nbsp;mya, the continent has been mostly covered with ice,<ref name="Trewby"></ref> with the Antarctic ice cap reaching its present extension around 6&nbsp;mya.

===Geology of present-day Antarctica===
thumb|right|Antarctica without its ice shield. This map does not consider that sea level would rise because of the melted ice, nor that the landmass would rise by several hundred meters over a few tens of thousands of years after the weight of the ice were no longer depressing the landmass.
thumb|[[Port Lockroy Museum.]]
The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by the fact that nearly all of the continent is permanently covered with a thick layer of ice. However, new techniques such as remote sensing, ground-penetrating radar and satellite imagery have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice.

Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the Andes mountain range of South America.<ref name="Stonehouse" /> The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by igneous intrusions and volcanism. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are andesite and rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in Marie Byrd Land and Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the Ellsworth Mountains region, where the stratigraphy is more similar to the eastern part of the continent.

East Antarctica is geologically very varied, dating from the metamorphic and continental shield. On top of this base are various modern rocks, such as faulting has occurred.

The main oil and banned until the year 2048 by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.

==Climate==

thumb|left|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|blue ice covering glacial meltwater from the Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers.]]
thumb|Near the coast, December looks fairly temperate.

Antarctica is the coldest place on precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 centimeters (4&nbsp;in) per year, on average. Temperatures reach a minimum of between  and   and  in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between  and   and  near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it.<ref name="BAS-weather"></ref> Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. thumb|[[Cornice (climbing)|Snow cornices on a ridge top]] At the edge of the continent, strong katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are typically moderate. During summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface during clear days at the South Pole than at the equator because of the 24 hours of sunlight each day at the Pole.<ref name="cia" />

Antarctica is colder than the Arctic for two reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3 kilometers (2&nbsp;mi) above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation. Second, the Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica.

Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world. The aurora australis, commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the South Pole created by the plasma-full solar winds that pass by the Earth. Another unique spectacle is diamond dust, a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. It generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A sun dog, a frequent atmospheric optical phenomenon, is a bright "spot" beside the true sun.<ref name="BAS-weather" />
thumb|500px|center|Tabletop [[icebergs in Antarctica.]]

==Population==

Antarctica has no permanent residents, but a number of governments maintain permanent research stations throughout the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 4,000 in summer to about 1,000 in winter. Many of the stations are staffed year-round.
thumb|left|Two researchers studying [[plankton through microscopes.]]

The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the South Georgia, from 1786 onward. During the Stromness, Husvik, Prince Olav Harbour, Ocean Harbour and Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of Grytviken, Captain Carl Anton Larsen, a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who, along with his family, adopted British citizenship in 1910.

thumb|Field work.
The first child born in the southern polar region was Norwegian girl Solveig Gunbjörg Jacobsen, born in Grytviken on 8 October 1913, and her birth was registered by the resident British Magistrate of South Georgia. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and of Klara Olette Jacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 to become the manager of Grytviken, serving from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island.<ref>R.K. Headland, The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984.</ref>

Base Esperanza in 1978; his parents were sent there along with seven other families by the Argentinean government to determine if family life was suitable on the continent. In 1984, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Frei Montalva Station, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.<ref></ref>

==Flora and fauna==

===Flora===
thumb|More than 200 species of [[lichens are known in Antarctica.]]
The climate of Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor liverworts. The autotrophic community is made up of mostly protists. The flora of the continent largely consists of lichens, bryophytes, algae, and fungi. Growth generally occurs in the summer, and only for a few weeks at most.

There are more than 200 species of lichens and about 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are phytoplankton. Multicolored snow algae and diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula: ''Deschampsia antarctica'' (Antarctic hair grass) and ''Colobanthus quitensis'' (Antarctic pearlwort).<ref></ref>

===Fauna===
Land fauna is nearly completely nematodes, midge ''Belgica antarctica'', just  in size, is the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica. The Snow Petrel is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica. They have been seen at the South Pole.

Due to the extreme cold, the body fluids of tiny mites and midges in Antarctica contain glycerol, an antifreeze liquid that protects them from solidifying when temperatures plummet to as low as  .<ref name = "weatherquesting-cold"/>
thumb|left|[[Emperor Penguins in Ross Sea, Antarctica.]]

A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes Adélie Penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The Rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, Chinstrap penguins, and Gentoo Penguins also breed in the Antarctic.

The Sir James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds.<ref></ref>

The passing of the tonnes (35,300&nbsp;short tons) in 2000.<ref></ref><ref></ref>

==Politics==
thumb|left|Resupply by the Uruguayan Navy vessel ''Vanguardia''.
Antarctica has no government and belongs to no country. Various countries claim areas of it, but while some have mutually recognized each other's claims,<ref name="mutualrecog"> "Australia, New Zealand, France, Norway and the United Kingdom reciprocally recognize the validity of each other's claims."</ref> no other countries recognize such claims. The area between 90° W and 150° W is the only part of Antarctica not claimed by any country as of yet.<ref name="cia" />

Since 1959, new claims on Antarctica have been suspended and the continent is considered politically neutral. Its status is regulated by the 1959 ice shelves south of 60° S. The treaty was signed by twelve countries, including the Soviet Union (and later Russia), the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile and the United States. It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War.

In 1983, the Antarctic Treaty Parties began negotiations on a convention to regulate mining in Antarctica.<ref></ref>  A coalition of international organisations<ref></ref> launched a public pressure campaign to prevent any minerals development in the region, led largely by Greenpeace International<ref></ref> which established its own scientific station – World Park Base -  in the Ross Sea region<ref></ref> and conducted annual expeditions to document environmental impacts from human activities on the continent.<ref></ref>  In 1988, the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources (CRAMRA) was adopted.<ref></ref> The following year, however, Australia and France announced that they would not ratify the convention, rendering it dead for all intents and purposes. Instead, they proposed that a comprehensive regime to protect the Antarctic environment be negotiated in its place.<ref></ref>  As other countries followed suit, the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the ‘Madrid Protocol’) was negotiated and on January 14, 1998 it entered into force.<ref></ref>  The Madrid Protocol bans all mining activities in Antarctica, designating the continent as a ‘natural reserve devoted to peace and science’.

The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military manoeuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon. Military personnel or equipment are permitted only for scientific research or for other peaceful purposes.<ref></ref> The only documented land military manoeuvre was Operation NINETY, undertaken by the Argentine military.<ref></ref>

The United States military issues the Antarctica Service Medal to military members or civilians who perform research duty in Antarctica. The medal includes a "wintered over" bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons.<ref></ref>

===Antarctic territories===
thumb||Territorial claims of Antarctica.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Date
!Country
!Territory
!Claim limits
|-
| 1908
| 
| British Antarctic Territory
|  to 
|-
| 1923
| 
| Ross Dependency
|  to 
|-
| 1924
| 
| Adélie Land
|  to 
|-
| 1929
| 
| Peter I Island
| 
|-
| 1933
| 
| Australian Antarctic Territory
|  to  and</br>  to 
|-
| 1939
| 
| Queen Maud Land
|  to 
|-
| 1940
| 
| Antarctic Chilean Territory
|  to 
|-
| 1943
| 
| Argentine Antarctica
|  to 
|-
| 
| None
| Unclaimed territory (Marie Byrd Land)
|  to </br>(except the Peter I Island)
|}

The Argentine, British and Chilean claims all overlap, and have caused friction.  Australia has the greatest claim of Antarctic territory.

===Countries interested in participating in a future territorial division of Antarctica===
This group of countries participating as members of advisory Antarctica Treaty have an interest in the territorial Antarctic continent but provisions of the Treaty itself do not allow them to make their claims during the period of validation.<ref>[http://library.jid.org/en/mono38/nieto.htm La Antartica<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>http://www.afese.com/img/revistas/revista40/laantartida.pdf</ref>

*
*
* 
* 
*

Similarly Russia and the United States, original signatories of the Treaty, reserved their right to claim at any time if other countries enforce their own.