Die '''Promotion''' ist die Verleihung des akademischen Grades „Doktor“ bzw. „Doktorin“ in einem bestimmten Studienfach und ''dient dem Nachweis der Befähigung zu vertiefter wissenschaftlicher Arbeit''. Sie beruht auf einer selbstständigen wissenschaftlichen Arbeit, der Dissertation, und einer mündlichen Prüfung (Rigorosum <ref>vgl. z. B. Landeshochschulgesetz Baden-Württemberg i.d.F. vom 1. Januar 2005, § 38 (2) oder Bayerisches Hochschulgesetz i.d.F. vom 23. Mai 2006, Art. 64 (1) oder § 87 des österreichischen Universitätsgesetzes 2002.</ref> oder Disputation). Das Promotionsrecht haben Universitäten und (in Deutschland) ihnen gleichgestellte Hochschulen.

== Überblick ==
thumb|[[Johann Georg Puschner: ''Der zum Doctorat gelangende Student'', Universität Altdorf 1725]]
thumb|Erste promovierte Frau: [[Dorothea Christiane Erxleben]]
thumb|Erste promovierte Physikerin ([[Elsa Neumann) an der Universität Berlin 1899 ''(Stich nach Zeichnung E. Thiel)'']]

Der „Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft eigenständig Projektanträge stellen zu können. Mit der Promotion gilt die wissenschaftliche Ausbildung grundsätzlich als abgeschlossen. Im Gegensatz zur Promotion weist die Habilitation dann die Fähigkeit nach, das ''gesamte'' Fachgebiet auf hohem Niveau in Forschung ''und'' Lehre zu vertreten.

Die Promotion ist in Deutschland grundsätzlich eine Voraussetzung für die Habilitation. Je nach Hochschulgesetz der Länder ist eine Promotion in aller Regel erforderlich für die Beschäftigung als Professor oder zunächst als Juniorprofessor.

In lateinischen ''promotio'', von ''promovere'' (vorwärtsbewegen, befördern), abgeleitet. Der Kandidat wird nach erfolgreich bestandener Prüfung von der Fakultät oder einem Vertreter zum Doktor promoviert, das heißt befördert oder erhoben. Zudem hat es sich weithin eingebürgert, das Wort auch intransitiv in der Form „ich promoviere“ zu verwenden, womit dann aus der Sicht des Kandidaten seine Ableistung der Prüfung und der dafür erforderlichen besonderen Studienleistungen gemeint ist.

Im licentiatus zu führen. Der Erwerb des Doktorgrades war jedoch an die Absolvierung des ''examen publicum'' gebunden, einer Antrittsvorlesung mit anschließender Inauguraldissertation, die aus der schriftlichen Formulierung und Publizierung von Thesen zum Zweck der Einladung zum öffentlichen Examen entstand und sich zu einem obligatorischen Prüfungsteil entwickelte.

== Promotionsverfahren ==
thumb|Promotions[[urkunde (70 x 51 cm) auf Büttenpapier für Friedrich Hopfner vom 13. Januar 1905 von der Karls-Universität Prag]]

=== Allgemeines ===

Die Promotion wird eingeleitet, nachdem der Doktorand eine Doktorarbeit (Fakultät bzw. durch eine von ihr eingesetzte Kommission und der Einholung von Gutachten erfolgt eine mündliche Prüfung (''Rigorosum'') und/oder ein wissenschaftliches Streitgespräch (''Disputation''), das oft (aber keineswegs immer) das Thema der Dissertation zum Gegenstand hat. Diese mündliche Verteidigung einer Doktorarbeit ist in aller Regel öffentlich und wird vor Hochschullehrern und ggf. Persönlichkeiten des öffentlichen Lebens abgelegt.

Das Promotionsverfahren ist nach der Gesamtbewertung abgeschlossen; in der Regel ist ein Doktorand in Deutschland allerdings erst dann berechtigt, die Bezeichnung „Dr.“ zu führen, nachdem der Promovend die Publikation seiner Dissertation nachgewiesen hat. Einige Promotionsordnungen gestatten denjenigen, die das Verfahren abgeschlossen, aber die Dissertation noch nicht veröffentlicht haben, bis auf weiteres die Bezeichnung „Dr. des.“ (doctor designatus) zu führen.

Zum Verfahren muss auf die individuellen Promotionsordnungen der jeweiligen Fakultäten hingewiesen werden. Im Rahmen des laufenden Bologna-Prozesses wurde auch eine Aussage zu den „doctoral studies“ getroffen. Es ist nicht nur mit der Schaffung gemeinsamer Systeme für einheitliche Studienabschlüsse (Bachelor-Grad bzw. Master-Grad), sondern darüber hinaus eines einheitlichen Doktorgrades zu rechnen. Auf der Bologna-Nachfolge-Konferenz 2005 in Bergen wurden Promotionsstudiengänge (Doktorandenkollegs) bekräftigt, die auch bereits in einigen Landeshochschulgesetzen verankert sind und zum akademischen Grad ''Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)'' führen können. <ref>vgl. z. B. Landeshochschulgesetz Baden-Württemberg i.d.F. vom 1. Januar 2005, § 38 (2) oder Bayerisches Hochschulgesetz i.d.F. vom 23. Mai 2006, Art. 64 (2) und Art. 66 (2)</ref>

=== Ablauf ===

Der Ablauf eines Promotionsverfahrens wird in der Prüfungsordnung des zuständigen Fachbereiches festgelegt. Das Verfahren ist dabei von Hochschule zu Hochschule und von Fach zu Fach zum Teil sehr unterschiedlich. In der Regel enthält es die folgenden Schritte:

# Geeigneter Studienabschluss (in der Regel gutes bis sehr gutes Examen),
# Gegebenenfalls weitere Qualifikationsvoraussetzungen, zum Beispiel Seminarscheine, Sprachnachweise (Latinum, Graecum etc.) etc.
# Wahl eines Betreuenden (i. d. R. Prof.) (Doktorvater, m/w),
# Anmeldung des Promotionsvorhabens beim Promotionsausschuss einer Fakultät an einer Universität,
# Annahme als Promotionsstudent,
# Anfertigung der Dissertation. Die durchschnittliche Dauer schwankt erheblich je nach Fachrichtung. Während Mediziner ihre Dissertation häufig noch während des Studiums anfertigen können, investieren Juristen im Regelfall 1-2 Jahre. In naturwissenschaftlichen Fächern und in den Geisteswissenschaften sind aber, insbesondere bei forschungs- und empirielastigen Themen, auch Zeiträume von fünf Jahren keine Seltenheit. Das fertige Werk umfasst je nach Fachrichtung zwischen 25 und mehreren hundert Textseiten. In dieser Zeit sind unter Umständen (je nach Uni, Fach und Lehrstuhl):
#* Doktorandenseminare („Oberseminare“) zu besuchen,
#* Fachpublikationen zu veröffentlichen,
#* Beim Lehrangebot des Lehrstuhls oder Instituts mitzuarbeiten (Klausuren stellen und korrigieren, Übungen halten, Skripte überarbeiten und ähnliches).
# Einreichen der Dissertation beim Promotionsausschuss,
# Erstellung von 2–3 Gutachten durch die Opponenten,
# Mündliche und öffentliche Verteidigung (Disputation) und/oder Rigorosum,
# Vorbereitung der Doktorarbeit zur wissenschaftlichen Publikation,
# Einholung der Druckgenehmigung (''Imprimatur''), sofern noch nicht erteilt (bei theologischen Arbeiten muss eventuell noch eine kirchliche Billigung eingeholt werden [''Nihil obstat'', lat. ‚Nichts steht im Weg‘]),
# Publikation einschließlich Ablieferung von Fakultäten erlauben inzwischen auch die Veröffentlichung der Dissertation durch Publikation im Internet.

Vor allem in den naturwissenschaftlichen Fächern wird des öfteren eine „kumulative Dissertation“ erstellt. Hierbei werden Teilaspekte der eigenen Forschungsarbeit in eigenständigen Manuskripten zusammengefasst und allein oder mit Koautoren in begutachteten Fachzeitschriften (Reviewed Papers) veröffentlicht. Die einzelnen Publikationen, die natürlich in einem Sinnzusammenhang stehen sollen, werden anschließend kumuliert, d. h. als einzelne Kapitel zusammengefasst und als Dissertation eingereicht. Die nötige Gesamtzahl der Manuskripte und der Anteil der bereits veröffentlichten Kapitel wird durch die jeweilige Promotionsordnung festgelegt. Der Doktorand gelangt durch das Kumulieren zu einem übersichtlicher gegliederten Promotionsablauf, erlernt die Methodik des Publizierens und kann statt eines Einzelwerks mit geringem Verbreitungswert mehrere Veröffentlichungen vorweisen, die von den Fachkollegen weit stärker wahrgenommen werden.

In der Regel gehören in Deutschland zur Promotion keine Lehrveranstaltungen. Wenn man aber in einem Fach promoviert, das man zuvor nicht studiert hat, ist das anders. Dann absolviert man parallel zur Dissertation ein „Promotionsstudium“, das aus gewöhnlichen Lehrveranstaltungen besteht.

Sprachliche Anmerkung: Aus dem Verfahren, aber auch aus dem Wort, geht die wichtige Rolle des Doktorvaters (resp. -„mutter“) hervor. Daraus ergibt sich, bei aller eigenständigen Leistung der/des Promovenden/in, dass man promoviert wird. Insbesondere nutzt man Personalmittel, Sachmittel, das Arbeitsgruppenumfeld und unveröffentlichtes Wissen des Doktorvaters. Im Alltagssprachgebrauch ist das oft nicht klar.
An der Universität mit all ihren Ritualen jedoch erfolgt die Promotion durch die bereits geprüften Professoren, und erst die Habilitation danach ist die Leistung, die man eigenständig (aktiv) erbringt.
In Abweichung hiervon wird in ingenieurwissenschaftlichen Fächern der Grad der Eigenständigkeit oft dadurch betont, dass das Verbum „promovieren“ in seiner aktiven Form verwendet wird, z. B.: „Ich habe im Fach soundso promoviert“. Übereinstimmend damit wird dann auch die formale Habilitation als weiterer Nachweis der eigenständigen Forschungsarbeit in solchen Fächern als entbehrlich erachtet.

Die Promotion bringt für die außeruniversitäre Karriere nicht in allen Berufen oder Wirtschaftszweigen Vorteile. Vor allem in größeren Unternehmen steigen die Chancen eines beruflichen Aufstiegs und höheren Einstiegsgehalts. Dies wird aber unter Umständen durch einen späteren Berufseinstieg und niedrigere Verdienste während der Arbeit an der Dissertation wieder relativiert.

Die Konkurrenz ist bei manchen Forschungsthemen sehr groß und auch der Druck, als Erster zu bestimmten Themen (Ergebnisse) zu veröffentlichen. In der Praxis bedeuten aber frühere Veröffentlichungen durch andere keineswegs eine „Entwertung“ der eigenen Arbeit, sofern auch diese Veröffentlichungen bei der eigenen Arbeit berücksichtigt werden.

=== Bewertung ===
==== In Deutschland ====

Die Gesamtbewertung der Promotionsleistung erfolgt – regional unterschiedlich und mit unterschiedlichen Bedeutungen – häufig mit lateinischen Noten:

thumb|right|[[Aquatint of a Doctor of Divinity at the University of Oxford, in the scarlet and black academic robes corresponding to his position. From Rudolph Ackermann's ''History of Oxford'', 1814.]]

A '''doctorate''' is an Central and Eastern European countries place the doctorate second only to the habilitation.

The term ''doctorate'' comes from the Arabic term ''ijazat attadris'', which was a distinction granted to certain Islamic scholars, thus qualifying them to teach.<ref name=Makdisi></ref>

==History==

 

The origins of the doctorate dates back to the ''ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd'' ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic law. It was equivalent to the school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and at least ten years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses," and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of ''legal opinions") and ''mudarris'' (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into Latin as ''magister'', ''professor'' and ''doctor'' respectively.<ref name=Makdisi/>

The concept of a doctorate was soon introduced into Medieval Europe as a license to teach at a university.<ref name=Makdisi/> In this sense, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild.  The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts", seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree.

The usage and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, and it has also been subject to regional variations.  For instance, until the early 20th century few faculty members in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders.  After that time the German practice of requiring prospective lecturers to have completed a "research doctorate" became widespread. Additionally, universities' shifts to "research oriented" education increased the importance of the doctorate. Today such a doctorate is generally a prerequisite for pursuing an academic career, although not everyone who receives a research doctorate becomes a member of a university.  Many universities also award "honorary doctorates" to individuals who have been deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society.

Although the research doctorate is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career, it is a relatively new invention.
The older-style doctorates (now usually called "Higher Doctorates" in the United Kingdom) take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now less common in some countries, and are often awarded honoris causa. The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and involves either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing and, more recently, the ability to generate funding within the area of research. The "habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the research doctorate, and can be necessary for a Privatdozent (in Germany) or professor position.

A similar system traditionally holds in Russia. Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree ''doctor of science'' (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination. This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries.

== Types of doctorate ==

:''See Doctor (title) for more information.''
Since the Middle Ages, there has been considerable evolution and proliferation in the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities throughout the world, and practices vary from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles one to be addressed as "doctor", usage of the title varies widely, depending on the type of doctorate earned and the doctor's occupation.

Broadly speaking, doctorates may be loosely classified into the following categories:
thumb|right|Academic doctors gather before the April 2008 Commencement exercises at [[Brigham Young University]]

=== Research doctorates ===

Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of both mastery of research methods (as evidenced in class grades and a comprehensive examination) and academic research that is ideally publishable in a defense of a thesis or dissertation.<ref name="autogenerated1">http://www.americangraduateeducation.com/folder1/subfolder4/doctorate_programs.htm</ref>  The best-known degree of this type is that of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) awarded throughout the world but others include: the U.S. degrees of Doctor of Engineering (DEng) and Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD), the UK Engineering Doctorate (EngD), and the German degree of ''Doctor rerum naturalium'' (Dr.rer.nat.).

The minimum time required to earn a doctorate varies by country, and can be as short as three years (excluding bachelor's and master's studies). However, some candidates can take anywhere from five to ten years to complete. The median number of years to completion of doctoral degrees for all fields in the US is seven years.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Students are discouraged from taking unnecessarily long to graduate by having their financial support (stipends, research funds, etc.) relinquished. Furthermore, doctoral applicants were previously required to have a master's degree, but many programs will now accept students straight out of undergraduate studies.<ref>http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/Programs/phd/phd-admissions/index.cfm</ref><ref>http://www.mgmt.purdue.edu/programs/phd/admissions/</ref>

=== Higher doctorates ===<!--Higher doctorate redirects to this section title-->

In some countries, especially the Commonwealth nations or former USSR countries, there is a higher tier of
research doctorates, awarded on the basis of a formally submitted portfolio of published research of a very high standard.  Examples include the Danish doctorate (''doktorgrad''; e.g. ''dr.theol., doctor theologiæ'', Latin for Doctor of Theology).

The German habilitation postdoctoral qualification is sometimes regarded as belonging to this category, even though, strictly speaking, the habilitation is not an academic degree, but rather a professional license to teach at a German university.

Higher doctorates are often also awarded honoris causa when a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.

=== Professional doctorates ===

right|thumb|[[Juris Doctor candidates gather before commencement at the University of Pacific McGeorge School of Law, May 2008]]
<!--This isn't intended to be a comprehensive list, just a few illustrative examples from various countries.
    Please don't add any more without discussing it on the talk page.-->
Professional doctorates are awarded in certain fields where most holders of the degree are not engaged primarily in scholarly research, but rather in a profession, such as law, medicine, music or ministry.  Examples include the U.S. degrees of Czech degrees of Doctor of Dental Medicine (MDDr.) and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (MVDr.).

The term ''Professional Doctorate'' is also used to refer to research doctorates with a focus on applied research, or research as used for professional purposes. Among others, these include the degrees of Doctor of Education (EdD), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT),<ref>http://www.reference-global.com/doi/abs/10.1515/IJPT.2006.020</ref> Doctor of Business Administration (DBA)<ref>http://www.hbs.edu/doctoral/programs/dbavsphd.html</ref> and Doctor of Professional Studies (DPS in the U.S. or DProf in the U.K.).

=== Honorary doctorates ===

When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree ''honoris causa'' (i.e., "for the sake of the honor"), the university waiving the usual formal requirements for bestowal of the degree.<ref>https://berkley-u.edu/hon_deg.html</ref><ref>http://www.cmu.edu/cmnews/extra/040510_doctorates.html</ref> Some universities (e.g., Cornell University<ref>[http://ezra.cornell.edu/posting.php?timestamp=1052974800#question19 Dear Uncle Ezra - Questions for Thursday, May 15, 2003 - Cornell University<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, the University of Virginia<ref>[http://www.virginia.edu/registrar/records/05-06gradrec/chapter4/chapter4-1.htm#honorary University Regulations: Academic Regulations: Graduate Record 2005-2006</ref>) do not award honorary degrees, feeling the bestowal unethical.

== Country-specific practice ==

<!-- Many countries' programs are current hidden because they do not reference any citations. Feel free to modify and unhide text ONLY with appropriate citations. Thank you. -->
===Argentina===
Similar to other countries, in National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation<ref>[http://spuweb.siu.edu.ar/studyinargentina/pages/study1103.php Argentine Educational Portal: Quality Assurance]</ref>, which is a decentralized agency in Argentina’s Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.<ref>http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item=3&apps=64&idioma=en</ref>
<!-- === Brazil ===
The candidate is normally required to have received a Master's degree in a related field prior to getting a Doctor's degree. In a few cases however, some institutions may admit candidates who do not hold a Master's degree, based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are also common requirements for those willing to enroll in a doctoral program in Brazil. The admission process varies by institution. Some require candidates to take several tests prior to admission to the program and others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only. In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant for the duration of the doctorate.  

The requirements for the Doctor's degree usually include satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a doctoral thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge in the field of study to which the thesis topic is related. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be necessarily external examiners.  After completion of the program, which normally lasts around 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of ''Doutor'' (Doctor) followed by the name of the main area of specialization in which his/her research was conducted, e.g. ''Doutor em Direito'' (Doctor of Laws), ''Doutor em Ciências da Computação'' (Doctor of Computer Sciences), ''Doutor em Filosofia'' (Doctor of Philosophy), ''Doutor em Economia'' (Doctor of Economics), ''Doutor em Engenharia'' (Doctor of Engineering), ''Doutor em Medicina'' (Doctor of Medicine), and so on. The generic title of ''Doutor em Ciências'' (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.)

All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free as mandated by the 
Brazilian constitution. Several graduate students with good academic standing are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (''Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico'') and CAPES (''Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior''). Personal scholarships are also provided by the various FAP's (''Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa'') at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo, FAPERJ in the state of Rio de Janeiro and FAPEMIG in the state of Minas Gerais. Competition for graduate financial aid is very intense though and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend  for doctoral students in Brazil is between 500 and 1000 USD.

A degree of ''Doutor'' usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to that of Assistant Professor in the United States. Progression to full professorship at the rank known as ''Professor Titular'' requires however that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes many years. In the federal university system, individuals who hold a doctorate and are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of Associate Professor and, then, become eligible to take the competitive exam for full professorship provided that a professorship is available.  In the São Paulo state universities however, progression to the rank of Associate Professor and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship is conditioned on an individual's obtaining first the qualification of Livre-docente, which is similar to the Habilitation in the German university system and requires, in addition to a previous doctoral degree, the submission of a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and also passing a written exam. -->
<!-- === Denmark ===
In Denmark there are five levels of degrees: Bachelor's, Candidate's (may be compared to Master), Magister (similar to an MPhil in the United Kingdom system; a degree by research, higher than a Master's but lower than a Ph.D.), Ph.D. (replaced licentiate in 1988), and finally Dr., which is the higher doctorate.

For the higher doctorate, the candidate writes a major thesis and has to defend it orally at a formal disputation. In this disputation, the candidate (called ''præces'') defends his thesis against two official opponents as well as opponents from the auditorium ''(ex auditorio)''. -->
<!-- === Finland ===
Prior to introduction of Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1800 hours) of formal coursework of doctoral students. The general requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision on the scale of coursework needed to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties and even to individual professors. In fields of Engineering and Science, the required amount of coursework varies between 60 and 70 ECTS. Receiving the doctorate also requires a written thesis, the research for which usually takes three to six years. Thesis can either be a monograph or it can be edited from a collection of 3 to 7 journal articles, including an introduction tying together the individual parts. If a student is unable or unwilling to write a dissertation, he may qualify for licenciate degree of his field by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually worth of one year of research.

In the area of fine arts, the dissertation may be substituted by artistic merits and performances as decided by the degree-awarding faculty. -->
<!-- === France ===
In France, the doctorate (''doctorat'') is always a research-only degree. It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by an official text of the minister of higher education and research. Except for a very small number of private institutions, only public institutions of higher education and research can award the doctorate. It can be awarded in any field of study. The master's degree in research (Master Recherche [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_%28France%29]) or the former '''diplôme d'études approfondies''' (DEA) is a prerequisite for pursuing a doctoral program. The official normal duration of the doctoral work is three years. The redaction of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctorate's work.  While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 300 pages, and often substantially more (unlike in the US for example).  There are ~15000 new matriculations for the doctoral program every year and ~10000 doctorates awarded.

Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship, the most well known being the ''allocation de recherche du ministère de l'enseignement supérieur et de la recherche'' (4000 granted every years, gross salary of 18,369 euros in February 2007). 

During the preparation of the doctorate, the candidate has had, since 2002, to follow a limited number of courses, but there is no written examination for the doctorate. The candidate has to write an extensive thesis which is read by two external reviewers designated by the head of the institution. According to the reports of the reviewer, the head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend his thesis or not. The members of the jury are designated by the head of the institution and must be composed of external and internal academics. The supervisor of the candidate is generally member of the jury, as well as the reviewers of the thesis. The maximum number of members in the jury is 8. The defense lasts generally 45 minutes in scientific fields and are followed by 1h30 - 2h30 of questions from the jury. Defense and questions are public. At the end of the series of questions, the jury deliberates in private for 20-30 min and comes back to declare the candidate admitted or "postponed". "Postponement" is very rare. The admission of the candidate is generally followed by a distinction: "honourable", which is not highly considered, "very honourable", which is the usual distinction, and "very honourable with the congratulation of the jury" ( Très honorable avec félicitations). Because there exist no national criteria for the award of this last distinction, many institutions have decided not to award it. New regulations concerning this distinction were set in 2006. 

Confusingly the title of doctor (''docteur'') is used only by the medical and pharmatical practitioners who hold not a doctorate but a doctor's state diploma (''diplôme d'État de docteur''), which is a first-degree and professional doctorate obtained after at least 9 years of studies. As they do not pursue research studies, they are not awarded a doctorate.

Before 1984 three research doctorates existed : the state doctorate (''doctorat d'État'', the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate  (''doctorat de troisième cycle''), created in 1954 and shorter that the state doctorate, and the diploma of doctor-engineer (''diplôme de docteur-ingénieur''), created in 1923, for technical research. Since 1984, there is only type of doctoral degree, simply called "doctorate". A special diploma has been created called the "habilitation to supervise research" (''habilitation à diriger des recherches''), which is a professional qualification to supervise doctoral work. (This diploma is similar in spirit to the older state doctorate, and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain tenure in other systems.)  Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's work. -->

=== Germany ===
A research doctorate usually takes three to five years to complete. In Germany, most doctorates are awarded with specific designations for the field of research instead of a general "PhD" for all fields. The degree is written in front of the first name for addresses (within texts, the abbreviation "Dr." is common) and accompanies the person's name (unlike in German-speaking Switzerland).

There are no first degree doctorates but medical students can obtain a "Dr. med." after one semester of mostly undergraduate research or data evaluation. The "Dr. med." is not equivalent to a PhD but to a Masters degree. Medical Students going into research can obtain a research doctorate in some subjects, such as molecular medicine or human biology. 

Upon the completion of the habilitation paper (''Habilitationsschrift'') a senior doctorate (habil.) is awarded. This senior doctorate is known as the habilitation. It is not a degree, but an additional qualification. It authorizes the owner to teach at (German) universities ("facultas docendi"), plus qualifies the holder of the "habil." to teacher in a certain subject ("venia legendi"). This or an equivalent professional experience is - traditionally - the necessary prerequisite for a position of ''Privatdozent'' and Professor. Now, with the Bachelor/Master model and the ''Juniorprofessoren'' to be introduced, this has already changed partially.

<!-- ===India===
In India doctorate level degrees are offered by the universities or institutions of national level importance deemed to be universities. Entry requirements for doctorate degrees by most of the universities include good academic background at masters level(post graduate degree). Some universities also consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law for entrance to doctorate level degrees. Entrance examinations are held for almost all the universities for admission to doctoral level degrees. The duration of the coursework and thesis for award of the degree is about 5 years. The most commonly awarded doctoral level degree is Ph.D. There are some other doctoral level degrees such as DBA ( Doctorate of Business Administration), LLD (Doctorate in Laws) and D.Sc (Doctorate in Science). Some of the institutions of the national level importance such as [http://www.iimb.ernet.in Indian Institute of Management] call their doctoral level programmes as fellow programme. -->
<!-- === Ireland===
The Irish academic system and the British system have many similarities, reflecting both the colonial experience of Ireland, and the close and enduring links between the 2 countries. The sequence of degrees is Bachelor (BA, BSc and others) Master (MA, MSc, MPH and others) Doctor (PhD, MD, LLD, DD, DMus), Higher degrees on the UK model also exist, but the only one in any common use is the DSc. -->
<!-- === Netherlands, The ===

The traditional academic system of The Netherlands provides four basic academic diplomas and degrees: ''propaedeuse'', ''candidate'', ''doctorandus'' (drs.) and ''doctor'' (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of University, the student is awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree). The ''candidate'' degree, which was all but abolished by 1989, used to be attained after three years of academic study, after which the student was allowed to begin work on his doctorandus' thesis. The successful completion of this thesis allows one to use the ''doctorandus'' title, attainment of which means one's initial studies are finished. In addition to these 'general' degrees, a number of specific titles for certain subjects are available, each of which is equivalent to the ''doctorandus'' degree: for law: meester ('master') (mr.), and for engineering: ingenieur ('engineer')(ir.).In the last few years, the Dutch have incorporated the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees into their own. The old candidate's degree has been revived as bachelor's degree, the doctorandus' by the master's degree.

Those who choose to can enroll in a doctorate system after achieving a masters degree (or equivalent) recognised by the Dutch government. The most common way is to be hired as ''promovendus'' (research assistant with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive research, and write a doctoral dissertation (this course is normally four years, although the average duration to completions is about 5.5 years). It is also possible to conduct research without the research assistant status, for example through a business sponsored research laboratory, or in spare time. Regardless of the way, every thesis has to be supported by a promotor (full university professor who has the role of principal advisor) before it can be submitted. The written thesis is subjected to review by a committee of experts in the relevant academic field; who either approve or do not approve the submitted thesis. Failures at this stage are rare as the supervisors will rather hold back submission (causing delay beyond the 4 years) than allowing a substandard thesis to be submitted. Especially the promotor looses face with her/his colleagues allowing a substandard thesis to be submitted. After approval by the reviewers, the doctor's degree is awarded in a formal, public, defense session (failure durng this session is in theory possible but in practice this never happens). 

The doctor title is the highest academic degree one can attain in the Netherlands. There is only one title "doctor", which is equivalent to PhD. There have been some attempts to introduce a professional doctorate, e.g. at the three Universities of Technology in the Netherlands (Eindhoven University of Technology, Technical University Delft, and University of Twente) who award the "Professional Doctorate in Engineering" (PDEng) (which replaced an old post-master degree). However, this study is too short (only two years) to be a real doctorate and does lack the crucial elements to be recognized as such. Although the name and professional course is registered at the Royal Dutch Institute for Engineers (KIvI), the degree is not is acknowledged by the Dutch law as a doctoral degree and is not incorporated in the Dutch Higher Education Act. Holders of the title PDEng are not allowed to entitle it a doctorate and to use the title of "doctor" in the Netherlands and internationally. -->
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