: ''"Muhammad" geus jadi ngaran nu ilahar dipaké ku lalaki muslim.''

'''Muhammad'''  (dialihaksarakeun dina aksara Latin jadi '''''Mohammad''''', '''''Mohammed''''', '''''Muhammed''''', '''''Muhamad''''', atawa '''''Mahomet''''') dianggap ku umat  Islam salaku rosul/utusan Gusti nu pangangeusan/ahir. Numutkeun babad salira (biografi) nu disebut siroh (basa Arab), anjeunna dibabarkeun taun 570 di Mekah, pupus di Madinah 8 Juni 632, nu duanana aya di wewengkon kalér Arab.
  
Umat Islam percaya yén pancén Muhammad nyaéta pikeun nyampurnakeun agama tauhid (monotéisme), nyaéta Islam, nu geus diajarkeun/didugikeun ku para nabi saméméhna, sarta yakin yén Islam geus aya saméméh anjeunna. Nalika disebutkeun ngaran anjeunna, umat Islam biasa nuturkeun ku kalimah ''sallallahu `alayhi wa s-sal&#257;m'' (saw., "mugia Gusti Alloh maparinkeun kasalametan ka anjeunna").

==Ringkesan==

Muhammad waktu keur ngora kungsi jadi sudagar nu ngumbara ka mana-mana. Dina taun ngungsi, bareng jeung warga séjénna nu geus ariman, ninggalkeun Mekah nuju ka Madinah, tempat nu salajengna anjeunna ngadegkeun pamaréntahan masarakat Islam. Perang antara Mekah jeung madinah sababaraha kali lumangsung, nu pamustunganana pasukan Islam bisa balik deui nalukkeun Mekah. Pasukan Islam ieu salajengna bajoang nalukkeun kaom pagan séjénna di Tatar Arab. Nalika Muhammad pupus, anjeunna tos hasil ngahijikeun Tatar Arab sarta ngintunkeun sababaraha ékspédisi ka wewengkon kalér, ka Suriah jeung Paléstina.

Dina kapamingpinan satutasna Muhammad, kakawasaan Islam geus nepi ka Paléstina, Siria, Afrika Kalér, jeung Spanyol. Panalukan salajengna, kontak dagang antara Muslim jeung non-Muslim, sarta kagiatan da'wah geus hasil nyebarkeun Islam ka sakuliah dunya.

==Kumaha bisa nyaho ngeunaan Muhammad?==

Sumber-sumber rujukan nu bisa ngémbarkeun ngeunaan Muhammad nyaéta Qur'an, babad salira siroh, jeung kumpulan hadith. Najan lain mangrupakeun babad salira Muhammad, Qur'an méré sababaraha émbaran ngeunaan kahirupanana. Babad salira nu munggaran nyaéta karya Ibnu Ishaq (pupus 768), diédit ku Ibnu Hisham (pupus 833); jeung karya al-Waqidi (pupus 822). Ibnu Ishaq nulis babad salira Muhammad kira 120 - 130 taun sapupusna Muhammad. Sumber katilu, kumpulan hadits, saperti Qur'an, lain samata-mata biografi. Hadits nyaéta kumpulan sasanggeman sarta laku lampah Muhammad sarta para sahabatna.

Sababaraha sarjana sképtik (Goldziher, Schacht, Wansbrough, Cook, Crone, Rippin, Berg, jeung nu lianna) ngarasa mangmang kana kabisapercayaan sumber-sumber di luhur, utamana kumpulan hadits. Nu jadi alesan nyaéta nalika tradisi lisan ieu dikumpulkeun, masarakat Muslim geus bengkah jadi sababaraha madhab pamikiran. Unggal kelompok jeung madhab boga séwang-séwangan nu eusina mindeng patukang tonggong. Pikeun para sarjana Muslim, hal ieu nimbulkeun tangtangan pikeun nalungtik bebeneran kalawan leuwih anteb maké cara-cara modern. 

Loba sarjana Muslim jeung non-Muslim nu sapuk kana ayana (loba) tradisi nu teu oténtik/asli ngeunaan kahirupan Muhammad dina kumpulan haditsna (Malah, kabiasaan/tradisi ieu ''lolobana'' dicaritakeun ku otoritas Muslim nu dianggap ''lemah''; ngan saeutik kumpulan hadits nu dianggap ''sahih'', atawa bisa dipercaya; pikeun leuwih lengkep, buka élmu hadits).

Tapi, kaasup pikeun nu sképtik, ringkesan kasajarahan jeung babad salira nu dituliskeun di luhur bisa ditarima.

==Kahirupan Muhammad numutkeun Siroh==

===Silsilah Muhammad===

Numutkeun tradisi, Muhammad nyusud silsilahna nepi ka Adnan, nu dipercaya ku urang Arab kalér salaku karuhunna. Kasebutkeun yén Adnan téh turunan Ismail putra Ibrahim, najan silsilah pastina mah teu jéntré. Silsilah Rosululloh dugi ka Adnan nyaéta:

Muhammad bin Abdulloh bin Abdul Mutolib (Shaiba) bin Hashim (Amr) bin Abdul Manaf (al-Mughira) bin Qusai (Zaid) bin Kilab bin Murra bin Ka`b bin Lu'ay bin Ghalib bin Fahr (Quraish) bin Malik bin an-Nadr (Qais) bin Kinana bin Khuzaimah bin Mudrikah (Amir) bin Ilyas bin Mudar bin Nizar bin Ma`ad bin Adnan. (bin = "putra" dina basa Arab; ngaran séjén jalma nu dua ngaranna disebut dina kurung.)

===Keur budak===

Muhammad lahir ti kulawarga aya nu matuh di Arab kalér nu disebut Mekah. Dumasar itungan, anjeunna kira-kira lahir 20 April 570; nu dumasar tradisi katelah Taun Gajah. Ramana, Abdulloh, pupus saméméh anjeunna babar sahingga Muhammad dirorok ku akina ti bapa Abdul Mutolib, pamingpin bangsa Quraisy. Luyu jeung kabiasaan urang Mekah, ibuna ngirim anjeunna ka pilemburan sangkan disusuan sarta dirorok ku urang Baduy. Hawa pilemburan leuwih beresih batan di Mekah&#8217;s, jeung karasa yén dina iklim kieu, a city boy would have a sturdier start in life. Dina yuswa genep taun Muhammad dikantun pupus ku ibuna, Aminah, sarta akina, Abdul Mutolib, dina yuswa dalapan taun. Salajengna Muhammad dirawatan ku pamanna Abu Tolib, pamingpin anyar bani Hasyim bangsa Quraisy, nu pangkuatna di Mekah.

Mekah mangrupakeun puseur dagang nu penting, salasahijina kusabab ayana Ka'bah salaku tujuan jarah. Para sudagar ti rupa-rupa suku bakal datang dina mangsa usum jarah, nalika perang antarsuku dicaram pisan sahingga dadagangan bisa aman jeung teu kaganggu. 

Salaku rumaja Muhammad mimiti marengan pamanna dagang ngumbara ka Suriah, sahingga anjeunna boga pangaweruh lega ngeunaan sabudeureunana.

===Manjing sawawa===

Salasaurang dunungan Muhammad nyaéta Khodijah, randa beunghar umur 40 taun. Dina yuswa 25 taun, anjeunna nikah ka Khodijah (595). Tina nikah ieu anjeunna jadi beunghar, najan ti kulawarga bapana, anjeunna teu nampa warisan.

Catetan ''siroh'' nunjukkeun yén Khodijah jeung Muhammad gaduh lima putra, hiji lalaki jeung opat awéwé. Sababaraha ahli sajarah ngabantah yén sababaraha anak awéwéna sabenerna ti salaki nu kadua, sedengkeun ahli séjénna keukeuh yén sadayana putra Muhammad. Lima putra éta babar sateuacanna Muhammad mimiti da'wah Islam. Putrana ''Qasim'' pupus dina yuswa dua taun. Muhammad dilandih ''Abul Qasim'', nu hartina bapana Qasim. Putra nu opat nyaéta ''Zainab'', ''Ruqayah'', ''Ummu Kulsum'', jeung ''Fatimah''. 

===Mitembeyan da'wah===
thumb|left|150px|Guha Hiro numana, dumasar tradisi Muslim, Muhammad narima wahyu munggaran.
Muhammad mindeng niiskeun pikir di hiji guha deukeut Mekah. Kira taun 610, nalika niis, Muhammad kadatangan Malaikat Jibril sarta ngadangukeun sasanggemanana nu hartina "Baca, kalawan asma Alloh, Gusti nu Maha Nyipta. Nu nyiptakeun manusa tina saguruntul getih. Baca, kalawan asma Gusti nu Maha Ngawulang. Nu ngawulangkeun élmu migunakeun kalam; Nu ngajarkeun ka manusa sagala rupa nu teu dipikanyaho." (Tingal surat ''Al-Alaq'' pikeun lengkepna.)

Pangalaman munggaran jeung Jibril ieu matak ngaganggu kana pipikiran Muhammad, tapi Khodijah istrina ngayakinkeun jeung percaya yén ieu pangalaman téh bener; salajengna Khadijah jadi nu munggaran iman ka Muhammad. Khodijah salajengna dituturkeun ku adi sabrayna Muhammad nu kakara sapuluh taun Ali bin Abi Tolib sarta sobatna Abu Bakar. 

Dugi ka pupusna, Muhammad sering nampi wahyu, najan antara nu munggaran jeung nu kadua aya jarak wanci nu lila. Nalika mangsa nunggu nu matak melang ieu, anjeunna nampa surat ad-Dhuha, nu eusina ngalelerkeun nu nuju marojéngja.

Kira taun 613, Muhammad mitembeyan da'wah di tempat umum. Mimiti mah lolobana teu miroséa, malah ngahinakeun anjeunna. Tapi salajengna, jul-jol hiji-hiji ngagabung jeung para sahabatna.

===Dimusuhan===

Ngalobaanana umat Muhammad, nimbulkeun mumusuhan pikeun sawatara pamingpin lokal. Kawaluyaan aranjeunna gumantung ka Ka'bah, tempat jarah pamujaan. Mun aranjeunna mariceunan pamujaan-pamujaan éta, sakumaha nu diajarkeun ku Muhammad, bakal ngabalukarkeun leungitna nu jararah, dadagangan moal ramé, moal aya kabeungharan. Suku Muhammad nyalira, kaom Quraisy, pangrugina, sabab maranéhna pisan nu jadi pangawal Ka'bah. Muhammad jeung kaomna dihukuman, sababaraha di antarana aya nu diusir ka Habasyah Afrika sarta dugi ka ngababakan di tempat éta.

Sababaraha surat jeung bagian surat disebutkeun turun dina mangsa ieu sarta ngagambarkeun kaayaan ieu: tempo misalna Maryam jeung al-Anbiya, al-Kafirun, jeung 'Abasa. It was during this period that the episode known as The Satanic Verses may have happened. It is said that Muhammad was briefly tempted to relax his condemnation of Meccan polytheism and buy peace with his neighbors, but repented and recanted his words (see the article on The Satanic Verses). The incident is reported in only a few sources, and many Muslims do not accept it as fact. 

Taun 619, Khodijah istri Muhammad sarta pamanna Abu Tolib pupus; katelah salaku ''"taun tunggara."'' Bani Hashim nolak jadi panyalindungan Muhammad (sabab pamanna nu jadi pamingpin bani Hashim pupus), sahingga loba muslim nu ngarandapan siksaan jeung kalaparan.

Kira taun 620, anjeunna ngumumkeun yén anjeunna ngalaman Isro jeung Mi'roj - further alienating his enemies.

===Hijrah===

Taun kala/kalénder Islam.

Masarakat Madinah miharep Muhammad bisa ngahijikeun kotana nu kabagi ku kelompok-kelompok, nu salajengna Muhammad ngabéwarakeun Piagem Madinah (antara 622-623), nu jadi dadasar sangkan kelompok-kelompok nu béda bisa hirup kumbuh babarengan. Tradisi toléransi awal ieu mangrupakeun salasahiji sabab kuatna kakawasaan Muslim salajengna.

===Perang===

Hubungan antara Mekah jeung Madinah cepet pisan jadi goréng silih musuhan (tempo surat al-Baqarah). Urang Mekah nyita sagala titinggalan Muslim nu ditinggalkeun di Mekah. Di Madinah, Muhammad nawis perjangjian nyatru jeung silih tulungan jeung suku-suku tatangga. 

Bulan Maret 624, Muhammad mingpin 300 perjurit pikeun nyerang rombongan dagang Mekah. Urang Mekah hasil ngagagalkeun serbuan ieu sarta males ngirim pasukan leutik ka Madinah. 

Tanggal Badar, pasukan Mekah jeung MUslim bantrok. Najan 300 ngalawan 800 dina perangna, pasukan Muslim meunang, nelasan sahanteuna 45 sarta nahan 70 urang Mekah; ti pihak Muslim ukur 14 urang nu palastra.

===Kapamingpinan Muhammad beuki kuat===

Pikeun kelompok Muslim, meunangna di Badar jadi bukti nu nguatkeun karosulan Muhammad. Following this victory, after minor skirmishes, the victors expelled a local Jewish clan, the Banu Qainuqa.  Virtually all the remaining Medinans converted and Muhammad became ''de facto'' ruler of the city.

Sapupusna Khodijah, Muhammad nikah deui, ka Umar (nu ngaganti Abu Bakar). Putra Muhammad nu salamét ogé nikah di Madinah: Fatimah ka Ali sarta Ummu Kulsum ka Usman.

Para sahabat tadi, dina mangsa salajengna jadi pamingpin ngaganti Muhammad. Kaopat khalifah, atawa panerus Rosul ieu, katumbukeun jeung Muhammad ku getih, nikah, atawa duanana (tapi tempo ogé Khalifah piekun émbaran nu leuwih lengkep ngeunaan kontrovérsi saha sabenerna khalifah kahiji).

===Perang diteruskeun===

Taun Uhud, hasilna imbang. Pihak Mekah ngaku meunang, tapi leungiteun loba teuing soldadu pikeun ngadesek pasukan Muslim nepi ka Madinah. 

Bulan April 627 Abu Sufyan mingpin deui pasukan nu leuwih kuat ka Madinah. Anjeunna dibantuan ku simpatisan urang Madinah, suku Yahudi Banu Qurayza. Muhammad ngalawan ku ngali lombang sabudeureun Madinah sahingga salamet. This was the ''Battle of the Trench''. 

Satutasna perang, sadaya lalaki sawawa Banu Qurayza jeung saurang awéwé dipancung dumasar paréntah Saad bin Muadh, pamingpin nu dipilih ku Banu Qurayza. Sésa Banu Qurayza dijadikeun budak atawa tebusan, sedengkeun sadaya harta titinggalna dibagikeun di antara Muslim.

Satutasna perang ieu, pasukan Muslim bisa, maké cara panalukan atawa arasup Islam, ngalegaan pangaruhna ka kota-kota jeung suku tatangga.

===Nalukkeun Mekah===

Taun 628, posisi Muslim geus cukup kuat sahingga Muhammad wani balik ka Mekah, munjungan kalawan daméy. Bulan Maret 628 anjeunna siap-siap deui ka Mekah, dibarengan ku 1,600 urang. Sanggeus badami, hiji perjangjian dijieun di Hudaibiyah. Muhammad teu diwidian neruskeun jarahna ka Mekah taun éta. Taun payunna pihak Muslim diidinan jarah ka Mekah. 

Alatan perjangjian dirumpak, perang lumangsung deui. taun 630, Muhammad nyerbu Mekah kalawan pasukan loba pisan, cenah nepi ka 10,000 perjurit. Nyanghareupan balai nu teu bisa dilawan, urang Mekah nyerah tanpa perang. Ku kituna Muhammad ngajangjikeun pangampunan sacara umum (aya sababaraha urang sacara husus anu henteu). Urang Mekah lolobana asup Islam, sedengkeun sesembahan-sesembahan sabudeureun Ka'bah diancurkeun. Ku ayana ieu, jarah nu biasa lumangsung robah jadi jarah Muslim.

===Ngahijikeun Tatar Arab===

Saatosna wangsul ka Mekah, Muhammad ngéléhkeun satru suku-suku nu ngamusuhan di Hunayn, sahingga Muslim jadi kakuatan nu onjoy di Tatar Arab, katambah ku gancangna suku-suku jeung séjén nu ngagabung ka Muhammad.

===Muhammad salaku soldadu===

Salami hirup 63 taun, Muhammad kungsi jadi sudagar, lajeng ahli da'wah. Anjeunna ngangkat pedang dina mangsa ahir hirupna. Anjeunna jadi soldadu ukur sapuluh taun. 

Loba kritik ditujukeun ka Muhammad alatan nyerang rombongan dagang jeung panalukan. Kritik nyebutkeun yén perangna jauh mela-melu ti mélaan manéh, tapi komentator Muslim ngajawab yén perang-perangna ukur pikeun mélaan masarakat Muslim ngalawan urang Mekah, kalawan tetep ngajaga kamanusaan nalika perang. Pikeun salawa salajengna, tempo Muhammad salaku soldadu.

===Kahirupan kulawarga Muhammad===

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thumb|right|The name "Muhammad" in traditional [[Thuluth calligraphy by the hand of Hattat Aziz Efendi.<ref>See Muhittin Serin (1988)</ref>]]

'''Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh''' (;<ref>ligature at U+FDF4 </ref> ; ; also spelled '''Mohammed''' or '''Muhammed''')<ref> for the Arabic pronunciation.</ref><ref> Variants of Muhammad's name in French: "Mahon, Mahomés, Mahun, Mahum, Mahumet"; in German: "Machmet"; and in Old Icelandic: "Maúmet" cf Muhammad, ''Encyclopedia of Islam'' </ref><ref>The sources frequently say that, in his youth, he was called by the nickname "Al-Amin" meaning "Honest, Truthful" cf. Ernst (2004), p. 85.</ref> (ca. 570 religion of messenger and monotheistic islām'') of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Noah and other prophets of Islam.<ref>Esposito (1998), p. 12.</ref><ref>Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.</ref><ref name = "Peters 2003 9">F. E. Peters (2003), p. 9.</ref> He was also active as a diplomat, merchant, philosopher, legislator, reformer, military general, and, for Muslims and followers of several other religions, an agent of divine action.<ref>Alphonse de Lamartine (1854), ''Historie de la Turquie'', Paris, p. 280: </ref>

Born in CE in the Arabian city of God is One", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit. ''islām'') is the only way (''dīn'')<ref>'Islam' is always referred to in the Qur'an as a ''dīn'', a word that means "way" or "path" in Arabic, but is usually translated in English as "religion" for the sake of convenience</ref> acceptable to God, and that he himself was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as other prophets in Islam.<ref name="EspositoI">Esposito (1998), p. 12; (1999) p. 25; (2002) pp. 4–5</ref><ref name="EoI-Muhammad">Alford Welch, ''Muhammad'', Encyclopedia of Islam</ref><ref name="Peters 2003 9" />

Muhammad gained few followers early on, and was met with hostility from some tribes of Mecca; he was treated harshly and so were his followers. To escape persecution Muhammad and his followers migrated to Hijra, marks the beginning of the conquered Mecca. In Farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and died. By the time of his death most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.<ref>"Muhmmad," Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world</ref>

The revelations (or ''Ayats'', lit. "Signs of sira'') and traditions (''sunnah'') are also upheld by Muslims. They discuss Muhammad and other prophets of Islam with reverence, adding the phrase ''peace be upon him'' whenever their names are mentioned.<ref>Ann Goldman, Richard Hain, Stephen Liben (2006), p.212</ref> While conceptions of Muhammad in medieval Christendom and premodern times were largely negative, appraisals in modern times have been far less so.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/><ref>Watt (1974) p. 231</ref> Besides this, his life and deeds have been debated by followers and opponents over the centuries.<ref name="Britannica"></ref>

==Names and appellations in the Qur'an==
The name Muhammad (literally meaning "''praiseworthy''" or a verbal noun from the root '''' (Arabic :حمد) "to praise") occurs only four times in the Qur'an.<ref> Jean-Louis Déclais, ''Names of the Prophet'', al-nabī)'', ''messenger'' (''rasūl''), ''shāhid''), ''bearer of good tidings'' (''mubashshir''), ''one who calls'' [unto God] (''dāʿī'') and ''the light-giving lamp'' (''sirāj munīr''). Sometimes Muhammad is addressed by designations deriving from his state at the time of the address: thus he is referred to as ''the enwrapped'' (''al-muzzammil'') in Qur'an  and ''the shrouded'' (''al-muddaththir'') in Qur'an .<ref name="Muhammad-EoQ">Uri Rubin, ''Muhammad'', Seal of the Prophets".<ref name="Ernst">Ernst (2004), p. 80</ref> The Qur'an also refers to Muhammad as "Ahmad" (Surah ) (Arabic :أحمد), meaning "''more praiseworthy''".

==Sources for Muhammad's life==
thumb|left|[[Nakkaş Osman [c. 1595]. ''Prophet Muhammad at the Ka'ba, The Life of the Prophet'' Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul (Inv. 1222/123b).]]

The "most trustworthy source" for reconstruction of the life of the historical Muhammad is the Qur'an.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> The Qur'an has some, though very few, casual allusions to Muhammad's life.<ref name="Nigosian6"> S. A. Nigosian(2004), p. 6 </ref> The Qur'an however responds "constantly and often candidly to Muhammad's changing historical circumstances and contains a wealth of hidden data."<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> The Qur'an in its actual form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants in Western academia has not yielded any differences of great significance.<ref>F. E. Peters (1991) pp. 291–315.</ref>

Next in importance are the historical works by writers of third and fourth century of the Muslim era.<ref name="Watt-Mecca-xi"> Watt (1953), p.xi </ref> These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him (the ''sira'' and ''Al-Tabari.<ref>Donner (1998), p. 132</ref><ref name="Nigosian6"/> Another early source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by al-Waqidi (death 207 of Muslim era), and the work of his secretary Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (death 230 of Muslim era).<ref name="Watt-Mecca-xi"/> Many, but not all, scholars accept the accuracy of the earliest biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.<ref name="Nigosian6"/> Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. In the former sphere, traditions could have been subject to sheer invention while in the latter sphere, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been only subject to "tendential shaping".<ref> Watt (1953), p.xv</ref>

Lastly, the hadith collections, accounts of the verbal and physical traditions of Muhammad, date from several generations after the death of Muhammad.<ref> Lewis (1993), pp. 33–34 </ref> Hadith compilations are records of the traditions or sayings of the Muhammad. It might be defined as the biography of Muhammad perpetuated by the long memory of his community for their exemplification and obedience.<ref></ref>
Western academics view the hadith collections with caution as accurate historical sources.<ref> Lewis (1993), pp. 33–34 </ref> Some scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods, but try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.<ref>Madelung (1997), pp.xi, 19 and 20</ref>

There are a few non-Muslim sources which, according to S. A. Nigosian, confirm the existence of Muhammad and are valuable for corroboration of the Muslim traditional statements.<ref name="Nigosian6"/>

==Life==
===Background===

thumb|right|250px|Approximate locations of some of the important tribes of the Arabian Peninsula at the dawn of Islam (cities are indicated in white).
The Arabian Peninsula was largely arid and volcanic, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Thus the Arabian landscape was dotted with towns and cities, two prominent of which were Mecca and Medina.<ref name="Muhammad-Mecca-12"> Watt (1953), pp.1–2 </ref> Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions, as people needed support against the harsh environment and lifestyle. The tribal grouping was thus encouraged by the need to act as a unit. This unity was based on the bond of kinship by blood.<ref>Watt (1953), pp. 16–18</ref> People of Arabia were either nomadic or sedentary, the former constantly traveling from one place to another seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the latter settled and focused on trade and agriculture. The survival of nomads (or bedouins) was also partially dependent on raiding caravans or oases; thus they saw this as no crime.<ref name="Rue"> Loyal Rue, ''Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological'',2005, p.224</ref><ref name="Esposito4"> John Esposito, ''Islam'', Expanded edition, Oxford University Press, p.4–5 </ref> Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many of the surrounding tribes.<ref name="Muhammad-Mecca-12"/>

In pre-Islamic Arabia gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes and their spirits were associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. There was an important shrine in Mecca (now called the Kaaba) that housed statues of 360 idols of tribal patron deities and was the site of an annual pilgrimage. Aside from these tribal gods, Arabs shared a common belief in a supreme deity Allah (literally "the god") who was however remote from their everyday concerns and thus not the object of cult or ritual. Three goddesses were associated with Allah as his daughters: al-Lat, Manat and al-Uzza. Some monotheistic communities did also exist in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.<ref>See:
*Esposito, ''Islam'', Extended Edition, Oxford University Press, pp.5–7
*Qur'an 3:95</ref><ref>Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arab monotheists – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although their historicity is disputed amongst scholars cf. Uri Rubin, ''Hanif'', Encyclopedia of the Qur'an </ref> According to the tradition, Muhammad himself was a descendant of Ishmael, son of Abraham.<ref> Louis Jacobs(1995), p.272 </ref>

===Muhammad in Mecca===

Muhammad was born and lived in Mecca for the first 52 years of his life (570&ndash;622) which was divided into two phases, that is before and after declaring the prophecy.
====Childhood and early life====

Muhammad was born in the month of Aksumite king Abraha who had in his army a number of elephants. Recent scholarship has suggested alternative dates for this event, such as 568 or 569.<ref name="Watt7"> Watt (1974), p. 7.</ref>

Muhammad's father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born.<ref> Josef W. Meri (2005), p. 525</ref> According to the tradition, soon after Muhammad's birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as the desert-life was considered healthier for infants. Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Amina to illness and he became fully orphaned.<ref> Watt, ''Amina'', Abd al-Muttalib, of the Abu Talib, the new leader of Banu Hashim.<ref name="Watt7"/> According to Watt, because of the general disregard of the guardians in taking care of the weak members of the tribes in Mecca in sixth century, "Muhammad's guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time."<ref name="Watt8"> Watt (1974), p. 8.</ref>

While still in his teens, Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to Syria gaining some experience in commercial career; the only career open to Muhammad as an orphan.<ref name="Watt8"/> According to the tradition, when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian Monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen the career of Muhammed as a prophet of God.<ref>Armand Abel, ''Bahira'', Encyclopaedia of Islam </ref>

Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth, and from the fragmentary information that is available, it is hard to separate history from legend.<ref>Watt (1974), p. 8.</ref> It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Khadijah, a forty-year-old widow in 595. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.<ref name="BerkWorldHistory"/>

====Beginnings of the Qur'an====

thumb|right|The mountain of Hira where, according to Muslim beliefs, Muhammad received his first revelation.

At some point Muhammad adopted the practice of meditating alone for several weeks every year in a cave on Mount Hira near Mecca.<ref> Emory C. Bogle(1998), p.6 </ref><ref>John Henry Haaren, Addison B. Poland(1904), p.83</ref> Islamic tradition holds that in one of his visits to the Mount Hira, the angel Gabriel began communicating with him here in the year 610 and commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses:<ref>Brown (2003), pp. 72–73</ref>
<blockquote>Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Qur'an )</blockquote>

According to some traditions, upon receiving his first revelations Muhammad was deeply distressed and contemplated throwing himself off the top of a mountain but the spirit moved closer and told him that he has been chosen as a messenger of God. Muhammad returned home and was consoled and reassured by his wife, Khadijah and her Christian cousin, Waraqah ibn Nawfal. Shia tradition maintains that Muhammad was neither surprised nor frightened at the appearance of Gabriel but rather welcomed him as if he had been expecting him.<ref>
*Emory C. Bogle (1998), p.7
*Razwy (1996), ch. 9
*Rodinson (2002), p. 71.</ref> The initial revelation was followed by a pause of three years during which Muhammad gave himself up further to prayers and spiritual practices. When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching: Your lord has not forsaken you nor does he hate [you] (Qur'an ).<ref>Brown (2003), pp. 73–74</ref><ref> Uri Rubin, ''Muhammad'', Encyclopedia of the Quran </ref>

According to Welch these revelations were accompanied by mysterious seizures, and the reports are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.<ref>Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p. 31.</ref> According to the Qur'an, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Qur'an , Qur'an ). Sometimes the Qur'an does not explicitly refer to the Judgment day but provides examples from the history of some extinct communities and warns Muhammad's contemporaries of similar calamities (Qur'an ).<ref name="EoQ-Muhammad"> Uri Rubin, ''Muhammad'', Encyclopedia of the Qur'an </ref> Muhammad is not only a warner to those who reject God's revelation, but also a bearer of good news for those who abandon evil, listen to the divine word and serve God.<ref>Daniel C. Peterson, ''Good News'', Encyclopedia of the Qur'an </ref> Muhammad's mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Qur'an demands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols apart from God or associate other deities with God.<ref name="EoQ-Muhammad"/>

The key themes of the early Qur'anic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of dead, God's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in hell and pleasures in Paradise; and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not to kill new-born girls.<ref name = "EoI-Muhammad"/>

==== Opposition====

According to the Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.<ref name="Watt53-86"> Watt (1953), p. 86 </ref> She was soon followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Zaid.<ref name="Watt53-86"/> Around 613, Muhammad began his public preaching (Qur'an ).<ref>Ramadan (2007), p. 37–9</ref> Most Meccans ignored him and a few mocked him, while some others became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.<ref name = "Cambridge 1977 36">Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p. 36.</ref>

According to Ibn Sad, the opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the Meccan forefathers who engaged in polytheism.<ref> F. E. Peters (1994), p.169 </ref> The Qur'anic exegesis however maintains that it began as soon as Muhammad began preaching in public.<ref name="Rubin">Uri Rubin,'' Quraysh'', Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an </ref> As the number of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life, which Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba.<ref name = "Cambridge 1977 36" /> The powerful merchants tried to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching by offering him admission into the inner circle of merchants, and establishing his position therein by an advantageous marriage. However, he refused.<ref name = "Cambridge 1977 36" />

Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment of Muhammad and his followers.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> Bilal, another Muslim slave, was tortured by Umayya ibn khalaf who placed a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion.<ref> Jonathan E. Brockopp, ''Slaves and Slavery'', Encyclopedia of the Qur'an</ref><ref>W. Arafat, ''Bilal b. Rabah'', Encyclopedia of Islam </ref> Apart from insults, Muhammad was protected from physical harm due to belonging to the clan of Banu Hashim.<ref>Watt (1964) p. 76.</ref><ref>Peters (1999) p. 172.</ref>

thumb|right|Location of Abyssinia ([[Aksumite Empire).]]

In 615, some of Muhammad's followers emigrated to the histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the angel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166. </ref> Islamic scholars vigorously objected to the historicity of the incident as early as the tenth century CE.<ref>Shahab Ahmed, ''Satanic Verses'', Encyclopedia of the Qur'an</ref> In any event, the relations between the Muslims and their pagan fellow-tribesmen rapidly deteriorated.

In 617 the leaders of boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressurize it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted for three years but eventually collapsed as it failed to achieve its objective.<ref> F. E. Peters (2003b), p. 96 </ref><ref name="Momen"> Moojan Momen (1987), p. 4 </ref>

====Last years in Mecca====
thumb|right|Road to Ta'if in the foreground, mountains of Ta'if in the background ([[Saudi Arabia).]]
In 619, both Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died, and was thus known as the "year of sorrows." With the death of Abu Talib, the leadership of the clan of Banu Hashim was passed to Abu Lahab who was an inveterate enemy of Muhammad. Soon afterwards visited to Ta'if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector for himself there, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger.<ref name="Momen"/><ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut'im b. Adi (and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him safely to re-enter his native city.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/><ref name="Momen"/>

Many people were visiting Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Second Pledge of al-`Aqaba''", or the "''Pledge of War''"<ref>Watt (1974) p. 83</ref> Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to Yathrib. As before, with the migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.<ref name = P87>Peterson (2006), pg. 86-9</ref>

====Isra and Mi'raj====

thumb|left|The [[Al-Aqsa Mosque congregation building, the site from which Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have ascended to heaven.]]
Islamic tradition relates that some time in 620, Muhammad experienced the ''biography of Muhammad, presents this event as a spiritual experience while later historians like Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir present it as a physical journey.<ref name="EoIMW">''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p. 482</ref> Some western scholars of Islam hold that the oldest Muslim tradition identified the journey as one traveled through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial Kaʿba (heavenly prototype of the Kaʿba); but later tradition identified Muhammad's journey from Mecca to the abode of sanctuary (bayt al-maqdis) in Jerusalem.<ref> Sells, Michael. ''Ascension'', Encyclopedia of the Quran. </ref>

===Muhammad in Medina===
====Hijra====

A delegation from Medina, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to Medina to serve as the chief arbitrator for the entire community.<ref name="Cambridge39"/><ref name="Esp"> Esposito (1998), p. 17.</ref> There was fighting in Yathrib mainly involving its Arab and Jewish inhabitants for around a hundred years before 620.<ref name="Cambridge39"/> The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.<ref name="Cambridge39">Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p. 39</ref> The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/>

Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina until virtually all of his followers had left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure of Muslims, according to the tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, however, Muhammad fooled the Meccans who were watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.<ref>Moojan Momen (1987), p. 5</ref> By 622, Muhammad had emigrated to Medina, then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis. Those who had migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as ''muhajirun'' (emigrants).<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/>

====Establishment of a new polity====

Among the first things Muhammad did in order to settle down the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was drafting a document known as the Peoples of the Book").<ref name="Cambridge39"/><ref name="Esp"/> The community defined in the Constitution of Medina, ''Ummah'', had a religious outlook but was also shaped by the practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> It effectively established the first Islamic state.

The first group of pagan converts to Islam in Medina were the clans who had not produced great leaders for themselves but had suffered from warlike leaders from other clans. This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, apart from some exception. This was according to Ibn Ishaq influenced by the conversion of brotherhood between the emigrants and the helpers and he chose Ali as his own brother.<ref></ref>

With the early general conversion of Medinian pagans to Islam, the pagan opposition in Medina was never of prime importance in the affairs of Medina. Those remaining pagans in Medina were very bitter about the advance of Islam. In particular Asma bint Marwan and Abu 'Afak had composed verses taunting and insulting some of the Muslims. These two were assassinated and Muhammad did not disapprove of it. No one dared to take vengeance on them, and some of the members of the clan of Asma bint Marwan who had previously converted to Islam in secret, now professed Islam openly. This marked an end to the overt opposition to Muhammad among the pagans in Medina.<ref>Watt (1956), p. 179.</ref>

====Beginnings of armed conflict====
thumb|right|A map of the Badr campaign.

Following the emigration, the Meccans seized the properties of the Muslim emigrants in Mecca.<ref> Fazlur Rahman (1979), p. 21 </ref> Economically uprooted and with no available profession, the Muslim migrants turned to raiding Meccan caravans for their livelihood, thus initiating armed conflict between the Muslims and Mecca.<ref name="Lewisw">Lewis(2002), p. 44.</ref><ref>Watt (1961), p. 105.</ref> Muhammad delivered Qur'anic verses permitting the Muslims to fight the Meccans (see Qur'an [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/022.qmt.html#022.039 22:39–40]).<ref> John Kelsay (1993), p. 21 </ref> These attacks pressured Mecca by interfering with trade, and allowed the Muslims to acquire wealth, power and prestige while working toward their ultimate goal of inducing Mecca's submission to the new faith.<ref>Watt(1961) p. 105, p. 107</ref><ref name="Lewis2"> Lewis (1993), p. 41.</ref>
In March of 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the Meccans at Badr.<ref>Rodinson (2002), p. 164.</ref> Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded Muslims. Meanwhile, a force from Mecca was sent to protect the caravan, continuing forward to confront the Muslims upon hearing that the caravan was safe. The Abu Jahl.<ref>Glubb (2002), pp. 179–186.</ref> Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were soon ransomed in return for wealth or freed.<ref name="W123">Watt (1961), p. 123.</ref><ref name = "Rodinson 168-9">Rodinson (2002), pp. 168–9.</ref><ref>Lewis(2002), p. 44.</ref> Muhammad and his followers saw in the victory a confirmation of their faith.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> The Qur'anic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan ones, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils.<ref>Lewis(2002), p. 44</ref>

Muhammad expelled from Medina the Banu Qaynuqa, one of the three main Jewish tribes.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> Following the battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of Hijaz.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/>

====Conflict with Mecca====

The attack at Badr committed Muhammad to total war with Meccans, who were now anxious to avenge their defeat. To maintain their economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been lost at Badr.<ref>Watt (1961), p. 132.</ref> In the ensuing months, Muhammad led expeditions on tribes allied with Mecca and sent out a raid on a Meccan caravan.<ref>Watt (1961), p. 134</ref> Abu Sufyan subsequently gathered an army of three thousand men and set out for an attack on Medina.<ref name = "Lewis 1960 45">Lewis (1960), p. 45.</ref>
thumb|right|Map of the [[Battle of Uhud, showing the Muslim and Meccan lines respectively.]]
A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, there was dispute over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many of the senior figures suggested that it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of its heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying their crops, and that huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the wishes of the latter, and readied the Muslim force for battle. Thus, Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (where the Meccans had camped) and fought the martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims further, but marched back to Mecca declaring victory. They were not entirely successful, however, as they had failed to achieve their aim of destroying the Muslims completely.<ref>Watt (1974) p. 137</ref><ref>David Cook(2007), p.24</ref> The Muslims buried the dead, and returned to Medina that evening. Questions accumulated as to the reasons for the loss, and Muhammad subsequently delivered Qur'anic verses  which indicated that their defeat was partly a punishment for disobedience and partly a test for steadfastness.<ref>See:
*Watt (1981) p. 432;
*Watt (1964) p. 144.</ref>

Abu Sufyan now directed his efforts towards another attack on Medina. He attracted the support of nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina, using propaganda about Muhammad's weakness, promises of booty, memories of the prestige of Quraysh and use of bribes.<ref name = "Watt Medina 30"> Watt (1956), p. 30.</ref> Muhammad's policy was now to prevent alliances against him as much as he could. Whenever alliances of tribesmen against Medina were formed, he sent out an expedition to break them up.<ref name = "Watt Medina 30" /> When Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, he reacted with severity.<ref> Watt (1956), p. 34 </ref> One example is the assassination of expelled the Jewish Banu Nadir from Medina.<ref> Watt (1956), pp. 220–221 </ref> Muhammad's attempts to prevent formation of a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stop many potential tribes from joining his enemies.<ref> Watt (1956), p. 35 </ref>

==== Siege of Medina ====

Abu Sufyan, the military leader of Quraysh, with the help of Banu Nadir, the exiled Jewish tribe from Medina, had mustered a force of size 10,000 men. Muhammad was able to prepare a force of about 3000 men. He had however adopted a new form of defense, unknown in Arabia at that time: Muslims had dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman the Persian. The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627 and lasted for two weeks.<ref>Watt (1956), p. 36, 37</ref> Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications they were confronted with, and after an ineffectual siege lasting several weeks, the coalition decided to go home.<ref>See:
*Rodinson (2002), pp. 209–211;
*Watt (1964) p. 169</ref> The Qur'an discusses this battle in verses Qur'an [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/033.qmt.html#033.09 33:9-33:27].<ref name="Rubin"/>
thumb|right|Battle of Khandaq (Battle of the Trench)

During the battle, the Jewish tribe of accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from the accusations when Muhammad announced that he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses.<ref name="Watt-encyc-online"/>

====Truce of Hudaybiyya====

Although Muhammad had already delivered Qur'anic verses commanding the Hajj,<ref></ref> the Muslims had not performed it due to the enmity of the Quraysh. In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to make preparations for a pilgrimage (''umrah'') to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision where he was shaving his head after the completion of the Hajj.<ref>Lings (1987), p. 249</ref> Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh sent out a force of 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, thereby reaching al-Hudaybiyya, just outside of Mecca.<ref name = "Hudaybiya"/> According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was at the same time demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam does not threaten the prestige of their sanctuary, and that Islam was an Arabian religion.<ref name = "Hudaybiya">Watt, ''al- Hudaybiya or al-Hudaybiyya'' Encyclopedia of Islam</ref>

Negotiations commenced with emissaries going to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad responded by calling upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" (Arabic: بيعة الرضوان , ''bay'at al-ridhwān'') or the "Pledge under the Tree." News of Uthman's safety, however, allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.<ref name = "Hudaybiya" /><ref>Lewis (2002), p. 42.</ref> The main points of treaty included the cessation of hostilities; the deferral of Muhammad's pilgrimage to the following year; and an agreement to send back any Meccan who had gone to Medina without the permission of his or her protector.<ref name = "Hudaybiya"/>

thumb|A rendering of the seal attributed to Muhammad used in the letters sent to other heads of state.
Many Muslims were not satisfied with the terms of the treaty. However, the Qur'anic sura "Al-Fath" (The Victory) (Qur'an ) assured the Muslims that the expedition from which they were now returning must be considered a victorious one.<ref>Lings (1987), p. 255</ref> It was only later that Muhammad's followers would realise the benefit behind this treaty. These benefits, according to Welch, included the inducing of the Meccans to recognise Muhammad as an equal; a cessation of military activity posing well for the future; and gaining the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the incorporation of the pilgrimage rituals.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/>

After signing the truce, Muhammad made an expedition against the Jewish oasis of sent letters to many rulers of the world, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date are given variously in the sources).<ref name=King_Lings>Lings (1987), p. 260</ref><ref name=Kings_Khan>Khan (1998), pp. 250–251</ref><ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> Hence he sent messengers (with letters) to Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others.<ref name=King_Lings/><ref name=Kings_Khan/> In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad sent his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu'tah, in which the Muslims were defeated.<ref> F. Buhl, ''Muta'', Encyclopedia of Islam </ref>

===Final years===
====Conquest of Mecca====

thumb|The [[Kaaba in Mecca held a major economic and religious role for the area, it became the Muslim Qibla, or direction for Salah ]]
The truce of Hudaybiyya had been enforced for two years.<ref name=khan_274>Khan (1998), p. 274</ref><ref name = "Lings_291">Lings (1987), p. 291</ref> The tribe of ''Khuz'aah'' had a friendly relationship with Muhammad, while on the other hand their enemies, the ''Banu Bakr) with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.<ref name=khan_274/> After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were that either the Meccans paid blood money for those slain among the Khuza'ah tribe; or, that they should disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr; or, that they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyya null.<ref name=khan_274_275>Khan (1998), pp. 274–5.</ref>

thumb|Muhammad and his companions advancing on Mecca. The angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrail, are also in the painting
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The Meccans replied that they would accept only the last condition.<ref name=khan_274_275/> However, soon they realized their mistake and sent Abu Safyan to renew the Hudaybiyya treaty, but now his request was declined by Muhammad.
Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.<ref>Lings (1987), p. 292</ref> In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than ten thousand men. With minimal casualties, Muhammad took control of Mecca.<ref> Watt (1956), p. 66.</ref> He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who had mocked and made fun of him in songs and verses. Some of these were later pardoned.<ref>Rodinson (2002), p. 261.</ref> Most Meccans converted to Islam, and Muhammad subsequently destroyed all of the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba, without any exception.<ref>Harold Wayne Ballard, Donald N. Penny, W. Glenn Jonas (2002), p.163</ref><ref>F. E. Peters (2003), p.240 </ref> The Qur'an discusses the conquest of Mecca in verses Qur'an [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/110.qmt.html 110:1-110:3].<ref name="Rubin"/>

====Conquest of Arabia====

Soon after the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were collecting an army twice the size of Muhammad's. Hawzain were old enemies of Meccans. They were joined by the tribe of Thaqif inhabiting in the city of Ta’if who had adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans.<ref> Watt (1974), p.207 </ref> Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the battle of Hunayn.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/>
<!-- The consensus to include these images of Muhammad emerged after extensive months long discussions and efforts on both sides to balance multiple competing interests. Please do not remove or reposition these images because they are against your religion. Please do not add more images or reposition the current ones to prove a point. To avoid pointless revert-warring, blocking, and page protection, please discuss changes on the talk page. Thank you for contributing to Wikipedia. -->

thumb|right|Muhammad [[Islamic calendar#Annulling intercalation|prohibits intercalary months during al-Âthâr al-bâqiya''.]]

In the same year, Muhammad made the expedition of Tabuk against northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah as well as the reports of the hostile attitude adopted against Muslims. Although Muhammad did not make contact with hostile forces at Tabuk, but he received the submission of some of the local chiefs of the region.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/><ref> M.A. al-Bakhit, ''Tabuk'', Encyclopedia of Islam</ref> A year after the battle of Tabuk, the tribe of Thaqif inhabiting in the city of Ta’if sent emissaries to Medina to surrender to Muhammad and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad in order to be safe against his attacks and to benefit from the booties of the wars.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> The bedouins however were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain their independence, their established code of virtue and their ancestral traditions. Muhammad, thus required of them a military and political agreement according to which they "acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the Zakat, the Muslim religious levy."<ref>Lewis(1993), pp.43–44</ref>